Lecture 3

Question 1

What does the Dedifferentiation Hypothesis suggest about brain function in older adults?

Answer 1

It suggests that in older adults, there is reduced specialization and more balanced activity between brain hemispheres, which may be due to difficulties in recruiting specialized neural mechanisms.

Question 2

What does the Dedifferentiation Hypothesis suggest regarding behavior as people age?

Answer 2

reduction in the specialization of their cognitive abilities. In other words, different cognitive functions that were once distinct and specialized may become less differentiated and more similar to each other in older age. This can lead to less efficient and more generalized cognitive processing.

Question 3

What is the Compensation Hypothesis regarding aging and the brain?

Answer 3

The Compensation Hypothesis suggests that increase in both brain hemispheres working together counteracts age-related cognitive deficits.

Question 4

How does the brain compensate for age-related effects according to the Compensation Hypothesis?

Answer 4

The brain compensates by reorganizing and recruiting more neural resources.

Question 5

What is the “Posterior to Anterior Shift in Aging” hypothesis?

Answer 5

Suggest increased recruitment of anterior brain regions, particularly the frontal lobes, as a form of brain reorganization to compensate for age-related changes.

Question 6

What are two other Alternative Hypotheses that explains how the brain compensates for the effects of aging?

Answer 6

1) Posterior to Anterior Hypotethsis
2) Default to Executive Coupling Hypothesis of Aging

Question 7

What is the Default to Executive Coupling Hypothesis of Aging

Answer 7

Suggests Increased connectivity between the default network and frontal
brain regions

Question 8

Two main hypothesis that explains how our brain compensates for age-related changes

Answer 8

1) Dedifferentiation Hypothesis
2) Compensation Hypothesis

Question 9

Three Stages of Processing in Memory

Answer 9

Encoding is like entering information into your brain, where you take in and record new information.

Storage is when your brain saves and stores that information for later, like putting it in a mental filing cabinet.

Retrieval is when you recall and access the stored information when you need it, like finding a specific file in that mental filing cabinet

Question 10

Process of memory formation and retrieval (rabbits, eat cute sized rats)

Answer 10

Registration - Initial mental snapshot.
Encoding - Making memories.
Consolidation - Strengthening memories.
Storage - Saving memories.
Retrieval - Remembering.
Re-encoding - Updating memories.

Question 11

Implicit Memory

Answer 11

When you remember things without consciously trying,

Question 12

How do we know we have implicit memory?

Answer 12

Past experiences influence your actions without you actively trying to remember them.

Question 13

Priming

Answer 13

Previous experience or exposure to information makes it easier for you to remember or recognize related information later on.

Question 14

What happens to older adults in terms of priming?

Answer 14

Older adults still show the effects of priming, where their previous experiences influence their memory and recognition of related information.

Question 15

How can the negative effect on learning in older adults be mitigated?

Answer 15

Slowing down the presentation time of information can help cancel out the negative effect on learning in older adults.

Question 16

Explicit Memory

Answer 16

conscious and intentional memory, where you deliberately recall facts, events, or experiences.

Question 17

Explicit Memory Two Branches:

Answer 17

1) Semantic (knowledge and facts) -think of an encyclopedia
2) Episodic (experiences, situations) - think of it as your personal diary

Question 18

Implicit Memory: Procedural Memory

Answer 18

This is a memory for skills and habits, like riding a bike or playing a musical instrument.

Question 19

Implicit Memory: Classical Conditioning

Answer 19

It’s the learning of associations between stimuli and responses, such as associating a bell ringing with food delivery for dogs (Pavlov’s dog experiment).

Question 20

Implicit Memory: Non-associative learning

Answer 20

When your response to a single stimulus changes over time, like getting used to a repeated sound or becoming more sensitive to a new sensation.

Question 21

What happens to the volume of the hippocampus as people age?

Answer 21

The volume of the hippocampus reduces with age.

Question 22

How does the volume of the entorhinal cortex (located in medial temporal lobe) change with age?

Answer 22

The entorhinal cortex experiences minimal reduction or remains relatively stable in volume with age.

Question 23

Entorhinal cortex

Answer 23

Plays a role in formation and retrieval of memories, particularly spatial and autobiographic memories

Question 24

How does semantic memory change in older adults?

Answer 24

Older adults typically show minimal declines in vocabulary, knowledge of historical facts, and knowledge of concepts.

Question 25

Can older adults retrieve previously learned semantic information and learn new semantic information?

Answer 25

Yes, older adults can retrieve semantic information they’ve already learned, and they are also capable of learning new semantic information.

Question 26

What happens to episodic memory in older adults?

Answer 26

Older adults experience a decline in episodic memory.

Question 27

How does encoding of information change in older adults concerning episodic memory?

Answer 27

Encoding in older adults is less strategic, meaning they may not organize information by semantic categories.

Question 28

How can retrieval be supported in older adults regarding episodic memory?

Answer 28

Retrieval can be aided by cues, making recognition easier than free recall.

Question 29

How does prior knowledge, especially semantic knowledge, impact retrieval in older adults for episodic memory?

Answer 29

Prior knowledge, particularly semantic knowledge, can assist in the retrieval of information for older adults.

Question 30

How does recall for personal events change in Autobiographical Memory as people age?

Answer 30

Recall becomes increasingly ‘semanticized,’ meaning it becomes less rich in episodic detail.

Question 31

What theory suggests a preference for recalling positive events and details in older adults?

Answer 31

The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, proposed by Carstensen.

Question 32

How does autobiographical recall change with age according to the theory?

Answer 32

Autobiographical recall tends to become “fuzzier and rosier,” reflecting a focus on positive and emotionally meaningful memories in older adults.

Question 33

What is Ribot’s Law in relation to memory?

Answer 33

Ribot’s Law suggests that information is forgotten in the reverse order from which it was acquired.

Question 34

Prospective Memory

Answer 34

Remembering to do things

Question 35

How do “newer” memories typically behave in terms of stability as people age?

Answer 35

“Newer” memories tend to be less stable and more sensitive to age-related decline.

Question 36

How do “older, remote” memories differ in terms of stability and their response to neuropathological changes?

Answer 36

“Older, remote” memories are generally more stable and robust, showing resilience to neuropathological changes.

Question 37

How do older adults typically perform on laboratory prospective memory tests compared to young adults?

Answer 37

Older adults perform more poorly than young adults on laboratory prospective memory tests.

Question 38

How do older adults fare on real-world prospective memory tasks in comparison to younger adults?

Answer 38

Older adults tend to OUTPERFORM younger adults on real-world prospective memory tasks

Question 39

Why do older adults perform better on real-world prospective memory tasks compared to lab tests?

Answer 39

Older adults may rely on established daily routines in real life, which can serve as natural cues and aids for prospective memory tasks.

Question 40

What is meta-memory, also known as subjective memory?

Answer 40

Meta-memory refers to how people feel about their memory.

Question 41

How do older adults typically report their memory?

Answer 41

Older adults often report memory deterioration, regardless of actual self-reported memory decline.

Question 42

How do older adults perform when task instructions mention ‘memory’?

Answer 42

Older adults tend to perform worse when task instructions mention ‘memory,’ suggesting that their memory complaints may be based on stereotypes rather than rather than their actual memory abilities.

Question 43

What is the main takeaway regarding meta-memory?

Answer 43

“Mind over matter” Memory performance can be improved by increasing self-efficacy beliefs and emphasizing knowledge.

Question 44

What is the concept of “positivity bias” in aging?

Answer 44

Positivity bias in aging means that as people get older, they tend to remember positive things more easily than negative ones

Question 45

How can memory and attention be enhanced in older adults, according to the concept of “positivity bias”?

Answer 45

You can make your memory and attention better by focusing on things that make you feel happy and positive. So, if you pay more attention to positive emotions, it can improve your memory and attention skills.

Question 46

What aspects of memory decline with age?

Answer 46

1) Encoding: Less strategic
when encoding new
information (i.e., grouping
similar words)
2) Retrieval (when effortful)
3) Uncued (free) recall
4) Autobiographical
memories become
“fuzzier and rosier”
5) Prospective memory in
the lab

Question 47

What aspects of memory remain intact with age?

Answer 47

1)Priming
2)Semantic memory
3) Episodic Memory for
well-learned life events
4) Recognition memory
5) Prospective memory in
the real-world
6) Memory for positively
valenced stimuli