Asynchronous Lecture 3 + Lecture 11

Question 1

Primary Research Question of Levine et al., 2007?

Answer 1

Can Goal Management Training improve executive
functioning (i.e. goal-directed action in real-world settings)
in healthy older adults?

Question 2

How do the authors propose to address their research question in the study by Levine et al., 2007?

Answer 2

Addressed using a cross-over design where adults were assigned to an early versus late training groups
- Early group trained for first 12 weeks, then late group for next 12 weeks. All participants tested at all time-points (start, 12 weeks, 6 months post-intervention)
- This design helps control for practice effects on testing
- GMT training: included psycosocial training and memory training module

Question 3

What is the GMT intervention introduced by Levine et al., 2007?

Answer 3

A cognitive rehabilitation intervention that aims to improve task performance/excuetive function by emphasizing goal-oriented actions, reducing goal neglect, and strengthening the link between intention and action.

Question 4

What measures were used by Levine et al., 2007, to assess training success?

Answer 4

The study used standard neuropsychological tests and Simulated Real-Life Tasks (SLRTs) to measure cognitive functioning, along with self-reports for dysexecutive Function Questionnai

Question 5

What were the key objectives of the analyses in Levine et al., 2007?

Answer 5

The objectives were to determine if the groups were equal at baseline (Assessment A), if training improved cognition and psychosocial functioning beyond practice effects from testing in the early vs late group (Assessment B), and if benefits were maintained after 6 months (Assessment D).

Question 6

Results of Self-Reported Scores in Levine et al. 2007

Answer 6

The self-report scores (DEX) indicate that participants in both the early and late training groups reported improvements in executive functioning from the pre-training assessment to the follow-up assessment 6 months post-training.

Question 7

What do the results from the study by Levine et al., 2007, indicate regarding cognitive scores over time?

Answer 7

The results show that both the early and late training groups (ETG and LTG) improved in total cognitive scores, task strategy, and checking ability from baseline (Assessment A) to post-training (Assessment B) and were maintained or improved at the 6-month follow-up (Assessment D).

Question 8

What are the primary findings regarding GMT’s efficacy in older adults from Levine et al., 2007?

Answer 8

1) Far Transfer
- Improvement in real-world functional tasks
-Self-reported decline in executive function failures

2) Sustainability
- Effects maintained at 6 months (Assessment D for both groups).

Question 9

What caveats and cautions are noted in the study by Levine et al., 2007?

Answer 9

1) The multi-modal
training protocol makes it difficult to seperate the It’s hard to separate the effects of GMT from memory or psychosocial training based on evidence alone.
2) The participants were healthy and reported executive function difficulties, which could limit the ability to show training-related improvements.

Question 10

What is the primary research question addressed by Emery et al., 1992 in their study on physical activity?

Answer 10

What are key predictors of long-term adherence to
physical exercise following completion of a supervised
exercise program?
Central questions:
1) What are the levels of physical activity 1 year post-training?
2) What are the predictors (cognitive/physical) of activity levels?

Question 11

How did Emery et al., 1992 propose to address their research question?

Answer 11

The study involved 101 healthy older adults who were sedentary prior to the study. They were randomly assigned to aerobic, yoga, or wait-list control groups, assessed pre- and post-intervention
-All subjects did aerobic exercise for an additional 4
months then assessed
- All subjects were invited to continue aerobic exercise for
another 6 months and assessed (whether or not they
participated in this last phase).
-All subjects were assessed one year later

Question 12

What measures were used in the Emery et al., 1992 study to assess the impact of physical activity?

Answer 12

1) Physiological metrics (weight, heart rate, blood pressure),
2) Psychological assessments (depression, anxiety, self-efficacy), 3) Cognitive tests (Simple attention (Digit Span);
Processing speed (Digit Symbol)
Executive function (Trails)
Motor speed (Finger tapping),
3) Follow-up retrospective self-report questionnaires.

Question 13

What analyses did Emery et al. use in their 1992 study on physical activity?

Answer 13

Emery et al. used regression models to predict the amount of physical activity over one year based on outcomes measured after the final supervised exercise period. The models included age, gender, and the amount of supervised exercise training as variables.

Question 14

What caveats and cautions were noted in the Emery et al., 1992 study?

Answer 14

1) Self-report to determine exercise behaviors inaccuracies and biases.
2) Lack of objective data like pedometers can reduce data precision.
3) Cognitive tests may not be sensitive enough to detect subtle changes, limiting understanding of exercise’s impact on cognition.

Question 15

What were the key results of the Emery et al., 1992 study on physical activity?

Answer 15

Key predictors of overall activity included:
1) Physiological factors, specifically the anaerobic threshold measured at time 4, could predict activity levels
2) Psychological and cognitive factors were not significant predictors for overall activity levels.

Question 16

What did Emery et al., 1992 conclude about the predictors of exercise behaviors in older adults?

Answer 16

Predictors of trained exercise behaviours:
1) People with better cardiovascular endurance at time 4 can predict activity level
2) Those who had lower anxiety levels at the same time (time 4) were more likely to be physically active
3) People who could tap their fingers faster at time 4 were also more likely to be physically active.

Question 17

What were the primary findings of Emery et al.’s 1992 study on physical activity?

Answer 17

1) Lower levels of anxiety, greater endurance, and faster motor speed were predictors of greater exercise behaviors
2) Subjective reports suggested that exercise
behaviours were maintained because …
- Improved fitness level
- improved alertness and energy levels.

Question 18

Primary Research Question of Tranter et al., 2008?

Answer 18

The investigate whether introducing older adults to novel, mentally stimulating activities could counteract decline arising from the relative “disuse” of fluid
intelligence

Question 19

How did Tranter et al., 2008 investigate their research question?

Answer 19

The study involved 44 divided into training and control groups. The training group underwent 10 weeks of problem-solving exercises in class and at home exercises were provided., while the control group had no contact besides pre post testing and social meetings.

Question 20

What measures were used in the Tranter et al., 2008 study?

Answer 20

1) Cognitive Measures
- Culture fair measure of fluid intelligence
- NART (national adult reading test)
- Mini-mental state exam
- Block construction
2) Psychosocial
- Life Activities Questionnaire

Question 21

What analysis method was used in the Tranter et al., 2008 study?

Answer 21

2-way within and between factor ANOVA that looks at how both the time of testing (before and after) and the group (experimental versus control) affect the results of the study
- Key prediction: interaction between time and group. i.e., performance improvement from pre to post-testing GREATER in experimental than control participants

Question 22

What caveats and cautions are noted in the study by Tranter et al., 2008? (4)

Answer 22

1) Sample not representative of the general population: Limited generalization.
2) Training and control groups were not matched on social engagement/activity which which can make it challenging to attribute the study’s findings solely to the training intervention and not other factors
3) Unclear how much in-class vs. at-home training contributed, making it challenging to determine the most effective approach.
4) Age range for “old” not specified: unclear whether the results are relevant to a specific age group or a wider range of older adults.

Question 23

Discussion of primary findings of Tranter et al., 2008? (2)

Answer 23

1) Findings supported the Disuse hypothesis: which suggests that less mentally challenging activities may lead to reduced fluid intelligence in older adults.
2) Greater mental stimulation increases fluid intelligence, demonstrating far transfer and not just practice effects.

Question 24

Results of Tranter et al., 2008?

Answer 24

1) Phase 1 (Pilot Study): Group by time interaction was significant
on the Cattell Culture Fair test
2) Phase 2 (Combined pilot and follow-up): Improved cognitive domains, including both trained and untrained areas.
- In the Cattell Culture Fair test, the improvements were seen in the same cognitive skills that were targeted by the training (near transfer)
- Block construction showed improvements in a different cognitive domain (far transfer).

Question 25

What is the primary research question studied by Lustig et al. 200?

Answer 25

Aims to understand how cognitive training methods can enhance cognitive functions in older adults.

Question 26

How did Lusting et al., 2009 investigate their research question?

Answer 26

The study reviews various cognitive training methods, including strategy training, multimodal approaches, cardiovascular training, and process training

Question 27

What measures were used by Lusting et al., 2009, to assess training success?

Answer 27

1) Behavioral Measures and cognitive measures: improve cognitive performance tests (memory, attention, problem-solving), indicating cognitive enhancement.

2) Neuroimaging Data: Show changes in brain structure/function via MRI, revealing neural adaptations from cognitive interventions.

Question 28

Cautions and Caveats of Lusting et. al 2009 study?

Answer 28

Limited Generalizability: The study largely reviews interventions and outcomes in healthy older adults. Caution is needed when generalizing these results to all elderly populations, especially those with significant cognitive impairments or other health issues.

Complex Interventions: It’s difficult to pinpoint which elements of the multi-component interventions are most effective.

Neuroimaging Challenges: Interpreting neuroimaging results is complex due to age-related changes and individual differences in brain structure and function which can impact conclusions made regarding results

Question 29

Results of Lusting et. al 2009?

Answer 29

Results vary across interventions, with some showing significant improvements in cognitive functions and others showing minimal effects.
1) Strategy Training: Improvements in trained and near transfer tasks, but lack of far transfer
2) Multimodal Approaches: : Transfer effects can be widespread, but are often small. unclear contributing factors.
3) Cardiovascular Exercise: Enhances cognitive function, especially in executive tasks.
- Relatively large and widespread effects, but the underlying mechanisms of these effects are still unclear, and these methods may not be accessible to older
adults with physical limitations
4) Process Training: Promising transfer potential; require
careful task analysis to determine what processes are being trained and to pick the appropriate transfer tasks.