Asynchronous Lecture 1

Question 1

What are the key factors to assess intervention success?

Answer 1

The key factors include 1)Training Transfer/Generalization, Training
2) Efficiency/Sustainability, 3)Impact on Quality of Life / Functional Outcomes.

Question 2

What is the primary research question addressed by Ball et al. (2002) in their study on mental activity?

Answer 2

The primary question was to evaluate whether cognitive training interventions improve mental abilities and daily functioning in older independently-living adults.

Question 3

“What is the difference between Near and Far transfer in training transfer/generalization?”

Answer 3

Near transfer refers to the application of learned skills to similar contexts, while Far transfer involves applying skills to different, often broader contexts.

Question 4

What are the considerations in assessing Training Efficiency/Sustainability?”

Answer 4

Assessment includes determining how much training is required per unit of benefit and how long the impact of the training lasts.

Question 5

What study design did Ball et al., 2002 use for their Mental Activity research, and who participated?

Answer 5

They used a randomized controlled trial (RCT) ( where participants are randomly assigned to different groups to test the effectiveness of a treatment or intervention.)design with healthy older adults over 65 as participants.

Question 6

What were the training groups and methods in Ball et al., 2002’s study on Mental Activity?

Answer 6

Participants were assigned to one of three groups: Memory Training focusing on verbal episodic memory, Reasoning Training on problem-solving, and Speed of Processing Training on visual search with/without distractions. Training consisted of small group sessions in ten 1 hour sessions over 5-6 weeks, with a booster at 11 months.

Question 7

What were the outcome measures used by Ball et al. (2002) in their study?

Answer 7

The outcome measures included proximal (domain-specific indices of cognitive functioning), primary (daily life functioning), and assessments at baseline, post 1, and 2 years.

Question 8

mWhat do the analyses in Ball et al., 2002’s study aim to determine?

Answer 8

The analyses aim to determine the main effects of the intervention, interactions between time and group((were training effects different for different groups?), time and booster sessions(did booster session help maintain training effects?), and a three-way interaction among time, booster, and group (were booster effects different by group?)

Question 9

What does the critical analysis in Ball et al., 2002’s study compare?

Answer 9

The critical analysis compares the performance of trained groups versus untrained groups at baseline, year 1, and year 2 to see if the training led to improvements.

Question 10

What were the key results found in Ball et al. (2002)?

Answer 10

1) Each training task produced a net effect on its corresponding cognitive ability
2) Improved functional outcome, reduced ADL declinesso remain indepdent longer (although the effect was smaller than the cognitive improvements and there was no change observed at year 1 and 2)
3) Booster training benefitted performance at years 1 and 2, with a more significant impact on cognitive measures than functional measures (did not have far transfer effects)

Question 11

What were the main findings of Ball et al., 2002 regarding the effect of cognitive interventions on older adults?

Answer 11

Found that
1) Cognitive interventions improved older adults’ performance on the cognitive abilities they were trained in
2) Effect sizes (i.e. amount of training-gains observed) was similar to generally reported rates of cognitive decline in aging.
2) This provides early evidence that such interventions might slow cognitive aging.

Question 12

What cautions and caveats were noted in Ball et al. (2002)?

Answer 12

1) Practice effects across all training groups, such as the memory group improving on reasoning tasks simply due to repetition, highlighting the need for control groups
2) Generalization of training gains (both to proximal and
primary outcomes is difficult to demonstrate.
3) Overall the study shows cognitive improvement in older adults with training.
Real-world applicability and long-term benefits are still challenging to achieve.

Question 13

What is the primary research question in Colcombe et al.’s study on physical activity?

Answer 13

Does level of cardiac fitness correspond with efficiency in functional brain networks
during cognitive (i.e. executive control) task performance?

Question 14

What were two predictions of Colcombe et al., 2004?

Answer 14

1) Brain activation within the frontal and parietal regions (responsible
for flexible executive control) will positively correlate with physical
fitness.
2) Brain activation within the anterior cingulate cortex, a region
necessary for monitoring response conflict, will negatively
correlate with physical fitness.

Question 15

What methods were used by Colcombe et al. to address their research question?

Answer 15

Involved two studies
1) Study 1: Cross-sectional study to examine the association between cardiovascular fitness and functional brain activity, categorizing participants into low vs. high cardiorespiratory fitness groups.
2) Study two: Randomized Control Trial (RCT) where half were assigned to a cardiovascular fitness (CVF) program for 6 months and the other half to a non-aerobic stretching and toning group as a control intervention.

Question 16

What measures were used by Colcombe et al., 2004 to assess the effects of physical activity?

Answer 16

The measures used included cardiovascular fitness, assessed by a 1-mile walk test in Study 1 and a treadmill test in Study 2, and behavior, evaluated through the Flanker task and reaction time, comparing incongruent vs. congruent cues.

Question 17

Analysis Behavior for Study 1 Colcombe et al.

Answer 17

1) Were reaction times slower for incongruent versus
congruent stimuli? (i.e. did the incongruent arrows slow
people down?)
2) Did ‘high-fit’ participants show less interference than
‘low-fit’ participants?

Question 18

What were the main results of Colcombe et al., 2004 for study 1?

Answer 18

1) High-fit participants showed less interferenc from incongruent stimuli (less distracted
2) For higher vs. lower fit participants, brain activity was
greater in executive control regions (frontal and
parietal) and lower in error monitoring regions (anterior
cingulate cortex)

Question 19

What were the main results of Colcombe et al., 2004 for study 2?

Answer 19

1) Aerobic vs. toning/stretch trainees showed less
interference from incongruent stimuli post-training
2) For aerobic training participants, brain activity was greater in executive control regions (frontal and parietal) and lower in error monitoring regions (anterior cingulate cortex) post-training

Question 20

Discussion of primary findings of Colcombe et al., 2004

Answer 20

1) Strong empirical evidence (supported by both the
cross-sectional and longitudinal/training studies)
that cardio fitness training can improve executive
control.
2) The benefits of CFT on behaviour appear to be
mediated (influenced) by increased activity in executive
control regions AND decreases in error
monitoring regions.
3. Cardio-fitness training (CFT) is associated with increased brain activity in regions known to be involved in executive
control processing –and reduced activity in areas
known to be involved in error monitoring

Question 21

What are the caveats and cautions highlighted in Colcombe et al.’s study? (3)

Answer 21

1) Whether CFT-related differences are a result of increased
blood flow or circulatory changes that impact brain
measures
2) As a caution, its important to consider what level and duration of physical fitness is necessary to achieve the observed effects of CFT, suggesting that the results may not be consistent for everyone and may vary based on individual fitness factors
3) Whether the effects of CFT on behavior are influenced by changes in mood

Question 22

What is the multi-modal combined cognitive rehabilitation approach used by Winocur et al. 2007?

Answer 22

The approach combines memory training, goal management training, and psychosocial training (enhancing sense of personal control, self-efficacy, lifestyle activities, coping skills) to improve cognitive functioning as broadly as possible, with an emphasis on strategies for real-world transfer.

Question 23

What is the primary research question addressed in Winocur et al.’s 2007 study?

Answer 23

1) Does multi-modal training
(emphasis on memory, goal attainment and psycho-social
well-being) improve cognitive functioning and real-world
outcomes in older adulthood?
2) Does strategy training (i.e. emphasizing ‘top-down’ approaches over specific skill-learning) improve training
generalizability

Question 24

How did Winocur et al. propose to address their research question?

Answer 24

They used a cross-over experimental design (Participants experience various treatments at different times to compare effects within the same group.), randomly assigned to early versus late training groups. The study assessed cognitive and ‘real-world functioning’ measures before and after 12 weeks of training, and then 6 months, this design helps control for practice effects

Question 25

What was the approach of Winocur et al., 2007 in analyzing the effects of cognitive and social training on early and late training groups?

Answer 25

The study contrasted cognitive and real-world measures before and after training, comparing early and late training groups.
1) 0-12 weeks: compared early (training) and late (no-training) to determine if training improve performance
over and above the practice effects from repeat testing?)
2) 12-24 weeks: compared early (no-training) and late (training)
groups. Does performance improve in late group (i.e. does training
have an effect?) and is it maintained in early group?
3) 6-month follow-up: Were the benefits maintained over time?

Question 26

What were the results of the training in Winocur et al., 2007, and were the benefits maintained over time?

Answer 26

1) Benefits were observed in all functional domains, including memory, goal management, and psychosocial functioning. 2) Differences were noted in early versus late training groups in terms of motivation and engagement, but the benefits were maintained at a 6-month follow-up.

Question 27

What are the caveats and cautions associated with Winocur et al., 2007’s study?

Answer 27

1) Small sample size
2) Relied on self-report questionnaires for real-world measures, which may not accurately assess generalization to daily life. 3) It’s unclear which aspect of the multi-modal training was the ‘active ingredient,’ as all participants received all training modules,

Question 28

What were the primary findings discussed in Winocur et al.’s 2007 study?

Answer 28

1) Multi-modal training improves functioning in various domains.
2) These improvements are durable and generalize to the
real world.
3) Strategic approaches are more effective than repetitive skill training for maximizing the amount, duration and
generalizability of training benefits.

Question 29

What are three ways we How can we slow down age-related cognitive decline?

Answer 29

1) Mental Exercise: Provide strategies and train specific cognitive processes.
2) Physical Exercise: Engage in cardiovascular activities.
3) Social Engagement: Incorporate complex interventions or lifestyle changes, often involving social interaction like classes or volunteering.

Question 30

2What is a cross sectional study?

Answer 30

A type of study that gathers data from a group of participants at a single point in time to analyze and compare different variables or characteristics

Question 31

Analysis Brain for Study 1 Colcombe et al.

Answer 31

1. Does brain activity during the flanker task differ for high
   versus low-fit participants?
2. If yes, where do those differences appear

Question 32

Analysis Behaviour for Study 2 Colcombe et al.

Answer 32

1. Did participants show less interference post-training?
2. Did aerobic training participants demonstrate greater change than toning/stretch training?

Question 33

Analysis Brain for Study 2 Colcombe et al.

Answer 33

1. Does brain activity during the flanker task differ from
   pre- to post-training?
2. If yes, what regions show the greatest changes?