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Personality Revision 2 > Lecture 2- Measuring Individual Differences > Flashcards

Lecture 2- Measuring Individual Differences Flashcards

1
Q

Outline Adoplhe Quetelet

  • Stats
  • BMI
  • Normal Distribution
A

1796-1874

  • Tried to define ‘the average man’
  • Founded social sciences and statistical testing
  • systematic application of statistical methods to humans
  • ‘social mechanics’ or ‘social physics’
  • Developed the Body mass index - aka the Quetelet index
  • Found that BMI sat on a normal distribution - where each individual can be compared on this graph
  • so you could compare to the norm
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2
Q

What were the components involved in Quetelet’s normal man?

A

Tried to define the characteristics of the normal man

  • Not just physical characteristics, but also behaviours, mind and soul
  • Also personality
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3
Q

Outline Galton’s work in depatures from the average

- SD

A
  • Significantly influenced by Quetelet
  • His interests were about differences and deviation from the norm
  • He was interested in those who deviated from average - the top end more than the low end however
  • Came up with Standard Deviation
  • Eugenics
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4
Q

How did Galton and Quetelt differ?

A

Quetelet looked at what made people normal

Galton looked at what made people different from normal

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5
Q

Define latent traits/ variables

- SDB

A
  • We often canot measure things directly
  • E.g. cannot physically observe psychological traits - you need clever ways of studying them - e.g. tests
  • Need to monitor social desirablility bias however
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6
Q

Outline Charles Spearman

  • Stats
  • Factor Ana
  • Latent
A
  • He wanted to find a way of measuring latent variables and specifically, intelligence
  • Developed statistical methods to study latent variables
  • Proprosed the notion of ‘G’ - the underlying variable that determined
  • Developed the use of factor analysis to find G
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7
Q

Define factor analysis

- reduction

A
  • Explores patterns of correlation between the items on a particular measure - Trying to find ‘G’ variables by collating data into groups
  • Form of data-reduction: hard to deal with lots of measured items, so you identify similarities, patterns and ‘latent’ variables
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8
Q

Outline What spearman did, like who did he test

A 
Spearman tested schoolchildren with tests of different skills, e.g.
•Memory
•Spatial abilities
•Mathematical abilities
• Vocabulary

Spearman examined the relationships between scores on each test, he found a positive manifold

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9
Q

Outline Positive manifold

A

If you score highly in one domain, you are likely to score highly on the others
- this supports ‘G’ - if youre smart, you are intelligent across all domains

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10
Q

Outline Spearmans theory of intelligence

A 
General intelligence (g)
- the mental energy that underlys intelligence

Influences specific abilities (s)
- maths, spatial and verbal intelligences

These both influence your performance on an intelligence test

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11
Q

How did Spearman influence measurement strategies

A
  • Change in attitude and approaches - there was a race to create a good intelligence test, based off G
  • More rigourours standardised testing, so there can be comparison
  • Larger samples, designed to be all-inclusive approaches to measureing intelligence
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12
Q

Outline the 3 Wechsler tests

A
  1. Wechsler-Bellevue Scale (1939)
  2. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) 1955
    - adults 16-75
  3. Wechsler Scale for Children (WISC) 1955
    - children 5-16
  • These tests examined much broader domains, and a number of different abilities
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13
Q

Outline the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

  • non-verbal
  • Deviation IQ
A
  • The first intelligence test that involved non-verbal/ spatial tasks
  • Verbal and Non-verbal reasoning ability
  • Completed by large numbers of people to identify norms across different age groups
  • Wechsler came up with DEVIATION IQ - as an improvement for Termans IQ
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14
Q

Outline Termans Intelligence Quotient (IQ) equation

A

100 X (Mental age ÷ chronological age)

  • This is bad because couldnt apply to adults - age would increased but intelligence would stay the same
  • therefore IQ would decrease with age
  • would not produce a normally distributed graph
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15
Q

Outline Wechslers Deviation IQ equation

A

100 X (actual test score ÷ expected score for age)

  • compares others scores to those from people of similar age
  • would produce a normally distrubted graph
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16
Q

What were some of the domains the WAIS studied?

- Verbal vs performance

A

1) Verbal IQ
- Verbal Comprehension
- Verbal Memory

2) Performance IQ
- Perceptional Organisation
- Processing speed

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17
Q

Outline Ravens Progressive matrices

- Deviation from Standardised norms

A

Raven’s Progressive Matrices (1938)

  • Based on the concept of ‘g’
  • Aimed to develop a test that was free of cultural influences - non-verbal problems and abstract reasoning. Because it was found that western students did best on verbal tests
  • Your overall score is based on your deviation from standardised norms
  • Features non-verbal tasks (e.g. spatial/ pattern recognition)
    X - Is it truly culture free
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18
Q

Outline Thurstone’s theory of 7 primary mental abilities

A

‘G’ was made up from:

  1. Perceptual Sped
  2. Associative memory
  3. Spatial Visualisations
  4. Number
  5. Verbal Comprehension
  6. Reasoning
  7. Word Fluency
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19
Q

What was Thurstones critcism of spearman?

- Language

A

Argued that Spearmans tests on: memory, spatial abilities, mathematical abilities, Vocabulary

  • all rested on language abilities, and that he hadnt really seperated out the domains of intelligence
  • this explains why there was positive manifold
20
Q

Outline Cattell’s theory of intelligence

A

He agreed about ‘g’, but just said there were 2 forms
Argued ‘g’ (general intelligence) was made up of two things:
1. Fluid Intelligence (Gf)
- doesnt really change, cant be taught,
- includes stuff like primary reasoning and problem solving

  1. Crystallised Intelligence (Gc)
    - environment and taught
    - developed and improved
    - factual form of IQ
    - education helps
21
Q

What did John Carroll do?

  • Inbetween
  • 3 stratum
A
  • Looked at like 450 studies, to try and produce a fundamental model of IQ
  • what comes in between ‘g’ and ‘s’ ?
22
Q

Outline Carrols theory of intelligence

A

three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities (1993)

Stratum 3: at the top
- ‘G’

Stratum 2: in the middle

  • 8 Sublevels of ‘g’
  • including Cattell’s Gf and Gc

Straum 1: at the bottom
- further sublevels of g

Tests

Specific abilities - at the bottom, there are loads
- e.g. visual, auditory, memory, cognitive speed, processing speed etc

23
Q

Whats a limitation of Carrolls theory?

A

X - very complicted, much more complicated that G/ Gf/ Gc

- cant really use this for tests

24
Q

Outline the combined model: Cattell-Horn-Carroll

A

There are 16 broad intelligences, which divide into subcategories

25
Q

What are the two areas/ professions that Theories of intelligence effect

A
  1. Researchers - aiming to define a true model of intelligence
  2. Testers- measures that assess range of abilities
    - this leads to a produce that is of use in a wide number of domains
26
Q

What are the evidence that brain volume and intelligence are linked

A
  1. Mental energy (Tiedmann, 1836)
  2. McDaniel (2005) - brain size and IQ positively correlated (0.03)
  3. Toga & Thompson, 2005 - Evidence for heritability of brain size
  • MRI allows for deeper exploration
  • there has never been a study that finds negative correlation between brain size and intelligence
27
Q

Outline reaction time tests

  • ECT
  • Deary, Der & Ford (2001)
A
  • Elementary cognitive tasks (ECT) - test processing speed and accuracy
  • Reaction time is key
  • Intelligence is determined by speed and accuracy of response
  • Moderate correlation observed between IQ and RT tests (Deary, Der & Ford, 2001)
  • ECT’s are good because they do not required any previous knowledge - everyone can do them
28
Q

Outline Jensen, and the Jensen Box

A
  • Supports the notion of ‘g’
  • Speed of processing is seen as an underlying marker of intelligence
  • there are 8 lights around a box, with a central light at the bottom. As soon as a light comes on, the speed to press it is tested - this is supposedly a measure of intelligence
29
Q

Outline INspection time as a measure of intelligence

A

Shown two lines that are differing in lenghts, the ends of the lines are then covered, and you are asked which one was shorter

  • each time, the amount of time you can look at the lines gets reduced
  • intelligence = the shortest amount of time you can have looking at the lines and still get it right
30
Q

What are the 4 uses for psychometric testing

A
  1. Research
  2. Diagnosis
  3. Evaluation
  4. Selection - for jobs etc
31
Q

What are the 6 things that make a good psychometric test?

A
  1. Reliabiility
  2. Validity
  3. Length of test (depends on participante, e.g. age)
    - They may get tired and do worse in later questions
  4. Standardisation of administration and ease of scoring
  5. Comparison
  6. Value of findings
32
Q

What are some limitions of psychometric tests?

A

X - tests only ever done once, need to look at how it changes over time
X - Predictive validity - does it tell us how someone will perform in a job environment
X - are we over tested? Practice effects
X - impact of the tests findings?

33
Q

Define reliability

- two types

A

Consistency of a measure over time, or across different circumstances

  1. Internal reliability
  2. test-retest reliability
34
Q

Outline Internal reliability

A
  • Items correlate with each other well (>.30)

- Suggests they are measure the same latent variable/ construct

35
Q

Outline test-re-test reliability

A
  • Extent to which the responses on a measure remain stable over time
36
Q

How do intelligence tests show internal reliability

- revisions

A
  • There has been extensive development and revision to make sure that items which show levels of reliability have been omitted
37
Q

How do intelligence tests show test-retest reliability, or does it?
- What did Benson (2003) find

A
  • Assumes intelligence is a stable trait
  • Benson, 2003 - found that scores on IQ tests fluctuate on re-test (Benson, 2003)

This could be due to alertness on that day, practice effects, lack of standardisation: pressure to do well, different instructions

38
Q

What are the 2 examples of longitudinal intelligence studies?

A
  1. Jones & Bayley (1941) - Berkeley Growth Study

2. Deary et al (2004) - Scottish Mental Survey

39
Q

Outline Jones & Bayley (1941) - Berkeley Growth Study

A
  • Cohort of children tested annually from 1928
  • IQ at age 18 correlated positively with IQ at 6 and 12
  • at 6: .77
  • at 12: .89
  • very strong relationships
40
Q

Deary et al (2004) - Scottish Mental Survey

A

Correlation of .73 between age 11 and 77 intelligence
- Intelligence scores at 11 also predictive of survival aged 76, and levels of physical fitness and independence
X - Cause and effect? - socioeconomics, better schooling at age 11 = better healthcare

41
Q

Define Validity

- two types

A

Does a psychometric test measure what we intended it to?
- Does it actually test what we want it to? Does it actually measure intelligence

Two types:
1. Concurrent validity (comparison with other similar measures)

  1. Predictive Validity (predictive ability of the measure)
42
Q

How do intelligence tests show concurrent validity?

- Neisser et al (1996)

A

Neisser et al (1996) found high levels of concurrent validity with other intelligence tests

43
Q

How do intelligence tests show predictive validity?

- Laidra, Pullma & Allik (2007)

A
  • Some evidence for it, in relation to health, school, performance, job performance etc
  • Laidra, PUllma & Allik (2007) - found that performance on Raven’s progressive matrices was found to be best predictor of GPA
44
Q

Outline the FLynn effect

A

Refers to the substantial and sustained increase in intelligence scores over time

  • Flynn found that on average, non-verbal tests scores increased 15 IQ pointes per generation (On Ravens)
  • Verbal tests show more moderate increases (9 points)
45
Q

What were the 5 environmental factors that Flynn explained his effect with

A
  1. Length of schooling - we now stay in school until 18
  2. Test-taking sophistication - exposed to more tests
  3. Parenting Styles - more involved in school work
  4. Nutrition
  5. Environmental Change (Visual Stimulation) - devices
46
Q

What are some cultural issues with psychometrics?

A

X - Are tests every truly ‘culture free’
X - stimulates social change - need to be careful not to publish harmful results towards genders or ethnic groups
X - focus on what constitutes intelligence varies across cultures - e.g. emphasising interpersonal intelligence or practical problem solving skills?

47
Q

What does Benson (2003) say we can use intelligence tests for?

A
  • Move towards more dynamic use of intelligence tests

- Need to help people understand their results better, identify areas of weakness and develop those areas

Personality Revision 2 (10 decks)

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