Lecture 2 - Foundations & General Issues of Criminal Justice Research

Question 1

Problems of Social Science Research

Answer 1

• Norms and rules influence patterns and regularities
• There are always exceptions (inferences are just based on probabilities)
  Ex. Young males are more likely to be deviant but that doesn’t mean all young males are deviant

Question 2

Traditional Models of Science

Answer 2

Conceptualization: The process of defining abstract concepts so they can be studied systematically (as a term can be interpreted differently depending on the person)
Ex. To research police brutality, must define brutality

Operationalization: Concrete steps, or operations used to measure specific concepts
Ex. If trying to operationalize fear for personal safety, we might ask:
* How safe do you feel walking alone on campus?

Observation (Hypothesis testing): The actual process of collecting data through various methods:
* Surveys
* Interviews
* Experiments

Question 3

Variables & Attributes

Answer 3

Attributes: Characteristics of qualities that describe some object, or person

Variables: Logical groupings of attributes

Ex. the attribute “police officer” logically group under the variable “Criminal Justice System”.

Question 4

Traditional Model Process

Answer 4

• Idea/Theory - developing the idea and main question you want to answer
• Conceptualization - further developing the idea to specific components
• Method - specific research design to answer the question. What question are you trying to answer? What data do you need, what type of participants do you need?
• Operationalization - how are you going to measure variables?
• Population/Sampling - who we are studying, what are we studying?
• Observation - Act of collecting data. for example, surveys or interviews
• Data Analysis - synthesizing the data you are collecting and making inferences to find a conclusion
• Reporting - reporting the data collected and organized

Question 5

Dependent Variable vs. Independent Variable

Answer 5

Independent Variable: The predictor variable (cause)

Dependent Variable: The outcome variable (effect)

Ex. Do body cameras reduce the use of force by police officers?

IV (cause): Body cameras
DV (effect): Use of force incidents

Question 6

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

Answer 6

Inductive: Starts with specific observations and moves toward a general conclusion
Ex. After observing that many students who eat a healthy breakfast perform better in school, a researcher concludes that breakfast improves academic performance.

• Observations (specific)
• Hypothesis
• Theory (General)

Deductive: Starts with a general theory or principle and tests it using specific data
Ex. Since studies show that regular exercise improves heart health, a doctor predicts that a patient who exercises daily will have a lower risk of heart disease.

• Theory (general)
• Hypothesis
• Observations (specific)

Question 7

Hypotheses

Answer 7

• Testable statement regarding the relationship between variables
• Not provable, alternative explanations will always exist

Therefore,
* Hypothesis testing shows support (or lack of) for claims

Question 8

Objective (Intersubjective Agreement)

Answer 8

Defined as “free of mind”
* Uninfluenced by personal feelings, opinions, or biases; based on facts and evidence.

Question 9

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Answer 9

Quantitative:
* Data - numerical, specific
* Goal = Generalize
* Deductive
* Analysis = Statistics

Qualitative:
* Data = Non-numerical, rich
* Goal = Understand behavior in context
* Inductive
* Analysis = Thematic analysis

Question 10

Developing a Research Topic & Question

Answer 10

• Topic - Media, news, personal experience, textbook, etc
• Problem - What is the underlying social/policy issue? Social significance?
• Question - Narrow the topic down into an examinable question

Question 11

Example: Developing a Research Topic & Question

Answer 11

Topic - Media portrayal/newsworthiness of IPC homicide
Problem:
* Media reports influence the public’s knowledge of crime
* Media reporting is based on what is “newsworthy”
* Biased reporting of IPV homicide can impact public opinion and policy
Question - Does the victim-offender relationship (IPV vs. Non-IPV) affect the newsworthiness of homicide reporting

Question 12

Example: Developing a Research Topic & Question

Answer 12

Topic - Youth gang prevention campaigns
Problem:
- Youth are most vulnerable to gang recruitment
- prevention programs aim to prevent youth involvement
Question - Does the end gang life campaign reduce the likelihood of youth gang involvement?

Question 13

Factors to avoid in Research Questions

Answer 13

• Value-based - Ex. Should abortion be illegal?
• Vagueness - Ex. Do Police Affect Crime? (What kind of crime, and by effect do you mean reduce crime?)
• Statements - Ex. Violent media and aggression (Make sure to form as a question)

Question 14

Theory

Answer 14

Systemic explanation for observed facts that propose a relationship between constructs

Question 15

Constructs (aka concepts)

Answer 15

Abstract ideas around which we do research

Question 16

Hypotheses

Answer 16

Testable statement derived from theory

Question 17

Variables

Answer 17

Concrete, ,measurable representations of constructs

Question 18

Attributes

Answer 18

Categories that make up a variable

Question 19

Units of Analysis

Answer 19

The thing you plan to analyze in your study
* Individuals Ex. Officer
* Groups Ex. Police department
* Organizations Ex. RCMP
* Social Artifacts Ex. Statue of Liberty

Question 20

2 Key Fallacies

Answer 20

Ecological Fallacy
* Assertion about individuals based on examining groups

Exception (individualistic) Fallacy
* Conclusions about groups based on small numbers of individuals
Ex. stereotypes based on 1 black robber

Question 21

Identifying Units of Analysis

Answer 21

Example:
* A researcher wants to know whether the commission of certain types of crime is related to income among adults. She surveys 10,000 university students about the types of crimes they have committed over the past 12 months. This inclusive list of crimes includes 50 types that range in seriousness. To get an accurate measure of income, respondents are asked to report their monthly and yearly take-home pay as well as their before-tax income.

Question 22

Cross-sectional research

Answer 22

Data collected at a single time point

Pros:
* Good for exploratory or descriptive research, and some explanatory research
* Low cost

Cons:
* Can’t establish temporal order (causality)

Question 23

Longitudinal Research

Answer 23

Data collected over an extended period of time

Pros:
* Can better determine cause-and-effect relationships (establishes temporal order)

Cons:
* Resources extensive
* Subject attrition

Types:
* Trend
* Cohort
* Panel

Question 24

Correlation vs. Causation

Answer 24

Correlational Relationships:
* 2 variables performed in a synchronized way

Causal Relationships
* One variable causes another variable to change

Correlation does not equal Causation

Question 25

Criteria for causality

Answer 25

* Empirical association - Two events, conditions, and behaviors interact in a patterned way * Temporal order - The cause (IV) must come before the effect (DV) Non-spuriousness: * There are no plausible alternative explanations * Observed relationship is not due to a confounding variable * Have we accounted for other possible explanatory variables?

Question 26

Conclusion

Answer 26

There is no simple recipe for conducting criminal justice research. It is far more open-ended than the traditional view of science would suggest. Ultimately, science rests on two pillars: **logic and observation**.