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Exotics > Lecture 2 And 3 > Flashcards

Lecture 2 And 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What is topography

A

The look of the animal -external structures

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2
Q

How many species of birds in the world

A

About 8500

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3
Q

Taxonomically, birds are placed in the Class ___

A

Aves

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4
Q

What is the primary distinguishing feature of birds

A

Feathers

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5
Q

How do birds birth their young

A

Laying eggs

Called Oviparous

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6
Q

What are the only other species that flies besides birds

A

Bats

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7
Q

The epidermis of birds is made of thin, flat epithelial cells that produce keratin, what structures is this necessary for?

A

Outer sheath of beak and claws

Feathers

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8
Q

The dermis is a thicker, fibrous connective tissue layer, what are the two main things the dermis is responsible for

A

Storage for fat

Movement of muscles via smooth muscles (heat regulation)

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9
Q

True or false

Birds have sweat glands

A

FALSE

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10
Q

What is the uropygial gland, what does it do?

A

The preen gland

Found on the dorsal surface at the base of the tail feathers

Secretes an oily fatty substance that waterproofs feathers

Varies in size with species

Lacking in some species (parrots or flightless birds)

Birds put the oil on their beak and rub it all Over their feathers

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11
Q

What do birds that do not have a preen gland often prefer rather than water baths

A

Dust baths

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12
Q

Describe the beak of birds, what determines their shape?

A

Derivative of a birds skin (keratin formation) it is covered in a horny keratin layer

Varies in hardness, flexibility and shape based on the function and what the bird eats

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13
Q

True or false

Bird beaks grow continuously

A

True

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14
Q

If a bird’s beak grows continuously, what does this mean?

A

Must be provided surfaces and foods that will maintain a normal length of the beak

Maybe need to clip or file the beak in some cases of overgrowth

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15
Q

What can overgrowth of the beak indicate

A

Internal problems

Nutrient problems

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16
Q

Describe the claws of birds, how do they differ between species?

A

Ends of each toe, possess horny sheath derived from specialized scales

Grow continuously

Differ based on perching habits and how the procure food (hunting or not)

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17
Q

What does it mean when you “quick” a birds nail

A

When you cut too deep and hit the blood vessel within the nail

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18
Q

True or false

Feathers are living structures on the bird

A

FALSE

they are non living structures

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19
Q

Describe feathers, what are their 5 main functions

A

Outgrowths of skin made of protein

Functions

1) flight
2) protection
3) thermoregulation
4) camouflage
5) communication behaviours

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20
Q

Where do feathers have sensation

A

At the base of the feather, in the area of attachment, not the actual feather

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21
Q

Describe the anatomy of feathers

A

Quill/calamus: hollow tube below the fluffy part of the feather (no barbs on this part)

Rachis: continuation of the quill with barbs attached

Bards: individual hair strands

Vane: a group of barbs held together by hooklets and barbule

Distal and proximal umbilicus: distal is a hole at the start of the barbs, proximal is the hole at the end of the quill

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22
Q

What are contour feathers

A

Most visible feathers

Give shape to the bird

Most compact microstructure: quill, rachis, vane (barbs, barbules, hooklets)

Have a tight structure on the fluffy part of the feather -held together. Often contain the color of the bird

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23
Q

What are semiplume feathers

A

Commonly found under contour feathers (mainly on sides, necks and back)

Provide insulation, flexibility and buoyancy in water birds

Central rachis with free barbs (no barbules or hooklets) (barbs not held together)

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24
Q

What are down feathers

A

Soft, fluffy, located next to the skin

Function in insulation

No rachis, simply a calamus with free barbs

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25
Q

What is a powder down feather

A

A specialized type of down feather

never stop growing (most other feathers stop at a certain point and fall out to get replaced)

Disintegrate at the tip, creating a waxy powder -this spreads on the plumage through preening, it helps clean and waterproof the bird

Highly developed in birds with out a uropygial gland (some parrots)

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26
Q

What is a filoplume feather

A

Sensory or decorative in function

Elongated rachis with barbs only at the distal portion

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27
Q

What are bristle feathers

A

Modified contour feathers

Thought to serve as a sense of touch

Location depends on species

Long, tapered rachis, few or no barbs at the base of the rachis (may or may not have barbules)

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28
Q

True or false

Feathers originate all over the body

A

FALSE

feathers overlap and are laid down in tracts with areas of bare skin in between

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29
Q

What is apteria

A

Where feathers do not grow on birds (bare areas)

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30
Q

What is molting

A

The process of replacing feathers

Occurs in species specific patterns (allows birds to continue on with life)

Generally a gradual process

Usually occurs symmetrically on the body

Only one or two major flight feathers at a time

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31
Q

When is the major molting time

A

Fall

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32
Q

What is different about water fowl molting

A

They lose all their feathers at once following the breeding season

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33
Q

Where do feathers grow from

A

From papillae in feather tracts of the dermis

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34
Q

What pushes out an old feather

A

A newly developing feather

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35
Q

Describe what feathers first grow covered in

A

Emerges covered in periderm

This is removed by preening

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36
Q

The blood vessels of a feather from the dermis reach into new feathers, what happens when the feather is mature?

A

The blood dries up and the rachis is pinched closed

Should appear white in adult feathers, may be blue in young feathers (important for wing clipping)

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37
Q

What is the objective of wing clipping

A

Clipping the feathers so the bird cannot fly (get lift) but can still glide down if they fell from a perch

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38
Q

Describe how to clip a birds wings

A

Trim 5-7 flight feathers under the coverts , this leaves a smooth appearance

Trim the outermost feathers OR leave two or more outermost primary feathers intact

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39
Q

Why should you not trim blood feathers (immature feathers) or the feathers on either side of it

A

These will cause major bleeding when cut

Don’t trim the ones on either side of it as protection from breaking

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40
Q

Where do the primary flight feathers originate from

A

The “hand” (metacarpus and digits)

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41
Q

Where do the secondary flight feathers originate from

A

Radius and ulna

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42
Q

What are the major and minor coverts

A

The feathers that cover the starts of the flight feathers

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43
Q

What do external parasites do to feathers

A

Chew and consume parts of the feather vanes, creating weak points

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44
Q

Damage to feathers can also be due to daily

A

Wear and tear

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45
Q

What is a fault bar

A

A stress bar

Weakened area in the feather vane where barbs lack barbules

Feather is stressed during its growth when blood flow is disrupted

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46
Q

What is the most common stressor for birds

A

Poor diet

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47
Q

What is feather picking

A

Common in captive psittacines and imprinted raptors

Can be caused by boredom or disease (parasites, infection, toxins)

Over picking of the feathers

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48
Q

If feather picking is seen in small birds it is almost always due to a

A

Medical cause

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49
Q

If feather picking is seen in large birds it is almost always due to a

A

Behavioural issue

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50
Q

Which cause of feather picking is harder to treat

A

Behavioural

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51
Q

What are the modifications of the musculoskeletal system of birds that allow for flight and walking

A

Reduction in number of bones

Fusion of some bones to form plates (keel)

Reduction in bone density

Loss of internal bone matrix (hollow, air filled spaces)

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52
Q

What is the axial vs appendicular skeleton

A

Axial: skull, vertebrae, sternum (framework)

Appendicular: wings, shoulders, legs, pelvis (locomotion)

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53
Q

Describe the skull of a bird

A

The jaw bone extends into the keratinized bill

Have large eye sockets bordered by sclerotic ring

Very Small portion of skull devoted to the olfactory system

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54
Q

True or false

Birds have a greater number of cervical vertebrae to allow for further flexibility

A

True

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55
Q

Describe the thoracic vertebrae of birds

A

Rigid to provide strong support for ribcage

Have the uncinate process that overlap adjoining ribs

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56
Q

Describe the lumbar and sacral vertebrae of birds

A

Fused vertebrae form bony plate to support legs (synsacrum)

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57
Q

Describe the coccygeal vertebrae of birds

A

First few mobile to allow movement of tail feathers

Pygostyle: fused bony structure that supports tail feathers

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58
Q

True or false

Lumbar and thoracic vertebrae do not move

A

True

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59
Q

Describe the sternum of birds

A

Large and concave

Protects the chest

Acts as a place of origin for flight muscles (keel) (pectoral muscles are the flight muscles)

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60
Q

The shoulder bone is a complex of 3 bones, describe these

A

Coracoid: prevents the collapse of the whole structure from the force needed to push wings together

Scapula

Clavicle (wishbone): fused clavicles are called a furcula

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61
Q

True or false

Muscles to open and close wing span are both on the back of the bird

A

FALSE

there are both located on the CHEST, very little muscles on the back

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62
Q

True or false

There is more force needed for the down stroke during flight

A

True

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63
Q

Describe the movement of the shoulder

A

Allows several planes of rotation

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64
Q

Wing muscles attach at the

A

Pectoral crest of the humerus

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65
Q

The humerus of birds is longer in birds that

A

Glide and soar

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66
Q

Describe the movement of the elbow

A

Only allows movement parallel to the wing

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67
Q

What is the patagium (propatagium)

A

The web of skin that extends from shoulder to wrist

Assists in aerodynamics

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68
Q

What is the alula bones

A

First digit that originates from the wrist

Carries the alula feathers (steering) for fine control

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69
Q

Describe the metacarpal bones

A

Metacarpal bones (Fused to form major and minor metacarpals) (2 in total) join with digits 2, 3 and 4

These help support primary flight feathers

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70
Q

Describe the pelvis of birds

A

3 paired bones join where leg attaches to body (ileum, ischium, pubis)

Distal ends of pubis not fused: Provide room to facilitate egg laying

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71
Q

Describe the legs of birds

A

Femur is directed forward to the knee

Some tarsal bones are fused with the tibia forming the tibiotarsus

Some tarsal bones are fused with the metatarsals to form the tarsometatarsus

Single bone of the “hock” spans from the ankle to the digits

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72
Q

Describe the feet of birds

A

A metatarsal pad on the bottom of the foot surrounded by 2, 3 or 4 digits

3rd toes is usually the longest

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73
Q

What are anisodactyl, give some examples of these

A

One toes faces to rear, other 3 face forward

Galliforms, raptors, song birds

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74
Q

What are zygodactyl

A

2nd and 3rd toes face forward

1st and 4th toes face backwards

Parrots

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75
Q

describe “bumble foot”

A

Infection of the feet, usually from a staph infection

Causes severe swelling, ulceration and discomfort

Linked to perches that are all the same size, too rough or not rough enough, or long claws

Change the perches and treat with antibiotics and preparation H (topical)

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76
Q

Why is it difficult to treat feet problems in birds

A

Birds are always on their feet, walking in feces especially

Infections spread fast since there is little tissue surrounding and very close to bone

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77
Q

Many muscles of birds are placed

A

Ventrally, near the center of gravity

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78
Q

What are white fibers in muscle

A

Thick
Low blood supply
Little myoglobin
Use stores of glycogen

Found in flight Muscles of short distance fliers

Exhausts quickly

“White meat” in breasts of birds

Sprinting, short bursts of flight

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79
Q

What are red fibers in muscle

A 
Thin
Large blood supply
Fat
Lots of myoglobin 
Mitochondria

Found in flight muscles of long distance fliers

Dark meat (legs)

Marathon runners, flying for long distances

80
Q

Describe what muscle fibers birds have depends on

A

Depends on lifestyle of birds (fliers vs walkers)

Some muscles have one or the other or a combination of both

81
Q

Describe the movement of wings in flight and the muscles involved

A

Both muscles found on the chest, responsible for raising and depressing the wing

The pectoralis muscle is larger and more superficial, flexion causes the wing span to close (down stroke)

The supracoracoideus is smaller and deeper, flexion causes the humerus to move and the wing span opens (up stroke)

82
Q

What is the muscle of choice for IM injections in birds

A

The pectoralis muscle

83
Q

Describe the muscles of the legs in birds, how are the toes controlled?

A

Primarily located over the femur

Control movement of the toes through long tendons

84
Q

What is the perching reflex

A

Claws close as the leg flexes

Allows bird to remain perched while sleeping (won’t let go or fall off)

85
Q

How can the perching reflex be used when clipping nails

A

Extend the leg to open the claws

86
Q

Describe the muscles of the head and neck

A

Extent of the jaw muscles vary depending on diet (strength needed to eat specific foods -hard nuts vs seeds)

Neck muscles allow movement in different directions

87
Q

What is the hatching muscle and the “egg tooth”

A

These structures aid in the new born chicks to break through their shell

The hatching muscle is on the back of the neck to give power when breaking shell (atrophy after birth)

The egg tooth is a small cornified structure on the beak to aid in breaking

88
Q

Describe the brain of birds, what differs compared to mammals

A

Large in proportion to its body

Location of different centres are similar to mammals but they have a large center for vision and hearing, and a small center for taste, touch and smell

89
Q

Describe the vision of birds

A

Highly developed

Large portion of the skull is made for housing and protecting the eyes (shape of the eye depends on the orbits)

Has limited movements in some species (most have to move their entire head rather than their eyeballs -owls)

90
Q

What is the shape of diurnal birds’ eyes

A

Round or relatively flat eyes

91
Q

What is the shape of nocturnal birds’ eyes

A

Tubular (elongated)

92
Q

What are the 3 main devisions of the anatomy of the eye

A

Fibrous tunic

Uveal tunic

Neural tunic

93
Q

What does the fibrous tunic contain, what are some specialized structures in this area in birds

A

Sclera and cornea

Birds have a sclerotic ring that reinforces the sclera

Nictitating membrane (third eyelid)

94
Q

Describe what would be different about a diving bird’s nictitating membrane

A

May have a clear center so they can see under water -protects the globe

95
Q

What does the uveal tunic contain, what is the main difference here in birds compared to mammals

A

Choroid, iris, ciliary muscles

Muscles in the iris are under VOLUNTARY control

96
Q

If the muscles in the iris are under voluntary control, what does this mean for the pupillary light reflex test

A

In birds, this is NOT considered a reflex, when a light is put into the eyes, the bird is literally choosing to constrict their iris

97
Q

What does the neural tunic contain

A

Retina

98
Q

describe the vascular pecten in the eye

A

This is a highly vascular comb like structure that projects into the vitreous humour from the point of the optic disc.

This provides oxygen and nutrients to the eye and removes waste

Can easily hemorrhage with head trauma and will see bleeding from the eyes

This structure is present because they have a reduced number of blood vessels in the retina to allow more photoreceptors (rods/cones)

99
Q

true or false

Nocturnal species have more cones than rods

A

FALSE
they have more rods than cones

Rods: low light vision
Cones: color vision

100
Q

Describe how birds have a higher level of visual acuity

A

Reduced number of blood vessels in the retina to allow more photoreceptors

Each cone has a single connection to a nerve fiber

Oil droplet in each cone increases color reception

Wide spectrum of light wavelengths are able to be perceived

101
Q

Some species have a temporal fovea in the eye, what does this do

A

Increases binocular vision

102
Q

Describe the ears of birds, what are some main differences

A

Located on the sides of the head, behind and slightly below the eyes

Do not have much of an external structure like a pinna

The middle ear only contains ONE bone (mammals have 3) called the Columella

103
Q

What makes the nocturnal owls hearing so highly developed

A

Contain a operculum: a muscularly controlled flap of skin in the ear that opens and closes to allow focusing of the ear

Also have asymmetrical ear openings to allow them to pin point where sounds are coming from

Large eardrums, columellae and cochlea

Well developed acoustic center in the hindbrain

Large number of auditory nerves

104
Q

Describe the tasting ability of birds

A

Poor sense of taste

Very few taste buds scattered on the sides of the tongue and soft palate

Levels of sensitivity and thresholds to taste vary in species (most can only differentiate types of taste -bitter, sweet, salty)

105
Q

Describe the sense of smell in birds

A

Highly variable in species depending on diet (hunting birds have a better sense of smell)

106
Q

True or false

If you pick up a baby bird from its nest, the mother will abandon it because it smells like humans

A

FALSE

this is a myth

107
Q

Describe the two main nerve endings for sense of touch in birds

A

Grandry’s Corpuscle: nerve endings prevalent on tongue, palates and bills of birds

Herbst Corpuscle: nerve endings present on cloaca, legs, wings, uropygial gland and feather bases

108
Q

What is the main difference of the endocrine system of birds

A

7 major glands plus the pancreas all function similar to mammals

The Bursa of Fabricus is the initial site of B lymphocyte production (rather than in the bone marrow in mammals)

109
Q

Because birds have such a fast metabolism, what does this mean for their diet?

A

They require large amount of food for the high energy demand

110
Q

Beaks of birds vary with

A

Diet

111
Q

The mouth of birds is similar to mammals, containing hard and soft palates, tongue, salivary glands and taste buds, what is the main difference in some birds?

A

Some species have a soft palate that enlarges into a pouch for temporary food storage (pelicans)

112
Q

What is the main difference of the hard palate in birds, what is it used to evaluate

A

Hard palate has an opening that communicates with the nasal cavity (choanal slit)

Used to evaluate papillae for nutritional deficiencies

113
Q

Describe how the tongue varies With Species

A

May be highly muscular in some species

May have very few muscles and is moved by muscles of the jaw apparatus in other species

114
Q

Describe the main difference in the esophagus of some species of birds

A

Contains a Crop

And expansion of the esophagus over the interclavicular space

This is a place for storage, lubrication, passage and potential mechanical break down of food

Very little digestion occurs here

115
Q

Describe the crop in pigeons and doves at breeding time

A

Mucosal lining can break down and slough off to form “pigeon milk”

116
Q

Describe the crop in Insect eating birds

A

Heavy epithelium protects the crops when insects are swallowed alive

117
Q

Describe the stomach of birds

A

Two separated compartments

Proventriculus: glandular compartment -chemical digestion begins here with pepsin and HCL

Ventriculus or Gizzard: muscular stomach: striated muscles grind food (mechanical) ingested grit aids in grinding food here (rocks)

118
Q

What is the pellet

A

Indigested food ground into a pellet in the ventriculus gets regurgitated

In birds of prey the pellet is mainly formed of bone, fur, etc -parts that couldn’t be digested fully

119
Q

Describe the liver of birds

A

Bilobed - right lobe is larger than the left

120
Q

Describe the pancreas in birds

A

Relatively large especially in fish and grain eaters

Rests in loop of the duodenum

Endocrine portion occupies more tissue mass than in mammals

121
Q

Describe the duodenum in birds

A

Main organ for digestion and absorption of nutrients

Varies in length and thickness depending on diet

122
Q

Describe the ceca in birds

A

Paired sacs at the junction of the small and large intestines in some species

Role in water reabsorption and in bacterial fermentation of cellulose

Contents excreted independent of fecal material

123
Q

Describe the large intestine in birds

A

Major role in reabsorption of water and minerals

124
Q

what is the cloaca

A

The end of the digestive tract

Common exit for the digestive, urinary and reproductive systems

125
Q

Describe the 3 sections of the cloaca

A

Coprodeum: receives excrement from the intestines

Urodeum: receives discharge from the kidneys and genital ducts

Proctodeum: stores excrement and eliminates it

All 3 things get combined/stored before excretion

126
Q

What is the vent

A

Muscular anus that expels waste products (mute)

127
Q

Waste excreted by birds is called

A

Mute

128
Q

Describe mute

A

Combination of feces (dark) and urine (liquid) with white powdery urate around it

Varies with diet

129
Q

How can mute be used to assess health

A

Can be an indication of disease based on color

Green mute can indicate chlamydial infection (zoonotic), internal parasites or liver disease

130
Q

Why should owners be familiar with the appearance of mute in their birds when they come to clinic?

A

Because stress can change how the mute looks while in clinic

Encourage to take a photo

131
Q

Why can birds technically not vomit

A

They have no diaphragm

132
Q

Describe tube feeding birds

A

Trachea is a small hole found more rostral in the throat, the esophagus is more caudal

Watch the back of the throat for regurgitation/over flow -indicates you put too much food in (risk of aspiration since trachea is so close and there is no real epiglottis present)

133
Q

Describe the heart and where it lies in birds

A

4 chambered, right side is smaller and less muscular

Lies in the cranial portion of the thoracoabdomnial space (called this since there is no diaphragm that separates the cavities)

134
Q

Why do birds have large pectoral and brachial arteries

A

To meet the specific demands of these highly muscular portions of the body (need a lot for flight)

135
Q

Describe the renal portal system of birds

A

Blood vessels from the legs/lower body, returning to the heart is shunted to the kidneys to get filtered before returning to the heart

136
Q

Why should the renal portal system in birds be taken into consideration before injecting medications

A

Would want to do it in the upper body so the medication can spread systemically before it gets filtered out by the kidneys

137
Q

Describe the countercurrent heat exchange system in the legs of birds

A

A system of heat exchange in lower extremities through a network of arteries and veins placed closely together

Heats up blood from the extremities before reaching the core to prevent hypothermia, and colder temperatures are sent with arteries back to the extremities

Does not constantly occur (like in summer) -has a sphincter that opens/closes depending on temperature

Especially useful in swimming birds

138
Q

Since birds have a fast metabolism, what does this mean for heart rate and blood flow

A

Fast heart rate

More rapid blood flow

139
Q

Electrodes used in electrocardiography are placed on

A

Wings and legs

140
Q

Functions of blood

A

Carry nutrients, oxygen and hormones
Carry metabolic wastes to lungs/kidneys
Control/prevent disease
Regulate body temperature

141
Q

What is the main difference of erythrocytes and thrombocytes in birds compared to mammals

A

They are nucleated

142
Q

What are neutrophils called in birds

A

Heterophils

143
Q

Describe erythrocytes in birds

A

Oval, nucleated and larger than mammals

Formed in bone marrow in adults or in spleen/liver in some species

Posses hemoglobin

Total number dependent on age, sex, diet and time of year

144
Q

Describe heterophils in birds

A

(Neutrophils)

Phagocytes

Round with rod shaped red/orange granules

Bilobed nucleus with clumped chromatin

145
Q

Describe thrombocytes in birds

A

Birds do not have platelets, they have THROMBOCYTES

nucleated cells that act as platelets do

Smaller than RBCs with large, round/oval nucleus

Produced by bone marrow in adult birds

146
Q

why do birds have such an extensive respiratory system

A

High demand due to fast metabolism and high energy levels (fliers)

Also aid in buoyancy during flight

147
Q

Describe the trachea of birds

A

Longer in comparison to body than mammals

Provide moisture and heating of inhaled air and aids in sound production

Have cartilaginous rings that surround the entire structure (not just c shaped)

May be coiled in some species

148
Q

What is the syrinx

A

The voice box

Enlargement of the trachea above the sternum

Contains muscles, air sacs and vibrating membranes

149
Q

Vocalization complexity depends on

A

the number of muscles present in the syrinx

150
Q

Describe the bronchi of birds

A

Trachea bifurcates into 2 bronchi

These further divide:
Mesobronchi: in the lung 
Secondary bronchi: ventrobronchi 
Parabronchi 
Air capillaries (site of gas exchange)
151
Q

Describe the lungs in birds

A 
Small and inelastic (do not expand/contract) 
High vascular (bright red)

Attached to the thoracic vertebrae and ribs

Connect via projections into the bone that put air into the hollow spaces for buoyancy

152
Q

Describe the air sacs of birds

A

9 think walled high vascular membranes

Connect to the bronchi -some extend into bone cavities

Functions:
Air reservoirs 
Provide warmth and moisture to air
Thermoregulation 
Buoyancy
153
Q

Respiratory rate increases with

A

Activity, heat, flying high

154
Q

Describe the airflow in birds lung

A

2 inspirations and 2 expiration are required to transport one breath of air through the entire system

Path of one breath/air pocket:
1st breath in: goes into posterior air sacs
1st breath out: goes into lungs
2nd breath in: goes into anterior air sacs
2nd breath out: air leaves

155
Q

If birds have no diaphragm, how do they breath

A

It is a whole body process driven by the expansion of the chest cavity/ribs

156
Q

What is different about a birds trachea? What does this mean for restraint

A

Birds tracheas have cartilaginous rings that surround the entire structure (not a c shape)

Restrain mainly from around the neck since breath occurs with the chest cavity movement

157
Q

True or false

There is no mixing of inspired and expired air with birds

A

True

158
Q

Due to their very efficient respiratory system, what does this mean for inhaled chemicals

A

Very rapid response and increased sensitivity to inhaled anesthetics

Very sensitive to poisonous gases or inhaled irritants

Ex: Teflon pans can cause respiratory distress and death in birds

Ex. canaries used in coal mines (these would die due to poisonous gases before humans did, used as an alert system)

159
Q

Describe the respiratory rate in birds

A

Varies with species, activity level, age, sex, time of day, outdoor temperature

Smaller birds breathe faster than larger birds

Birds in flight have higher rate than non flying birds

Respiratory rate is usually very fast and very high so it is not often used as a diagnostic tool

160
Q

True or false

Intubation of birds is extremely easy

A

True

trachea is very easily visible

161
Q

Describe how birds thermoregulate

A

Birds have no sweat glands

Most heat is eliminated through respiration (water evaporated through respiratory system helps cool)

Can increase this rate by panting or fluttering the upper throat patch with an open beak

162
Q

Why is panting dangerous in birds

A

Often indicates stress or over heating

Birds exist at a higher temperature compared to mammals, this leaves very little room for temperature changes before proteins begin to denature etc

163
Q

What are some other methods of decreasing temperature in birds

A

Bathing

Decreases activity

Some species defecate on their legs to increase evaporative cooling

Adjusting feather position (poofing to warm) (open up bare patches to cool)

164
Q

Other methods of raising body temperature in birds

A

Perching on one leg to minimize skin exposure

Tucking head and beak under feather on back

Shivering

Seeking shelter

Some species (humming birds) can enter a temporary night time torpor (state of inactivity) to conserve heat

Countercurrent heat exchange in limbs

165
Q

What is the urogenital system

A

The urinary and reproductive system in birds

166
Q

True or false

Female birds only have one ovary on the left side

A

True

167
Q

What is the salt gland

A

Many marine birds have a “salt gland”

Located above each eye and they drain into the nostrils

Secrete large amounts of sodium chloride (salt)

Helps maintain ideal osmotic conditions in the body while living and feeding in a high salt environment

168
Q

Describe the kidneys in birds, what are the differences compared to mammals

A

Large paired organ, 3 lobed, Lie flush with the back bone

Renal portal system filters blood from lower body (controlled by a valve)

Similar in function to mammals but

1) there is no renal pelvis
2) 2 types of nephrons: looped (similar to mammalian nephrons) and unlooped (similar to reptilian nephrons)

169
Q

True or false

Birds do not have a urinary bladder

A

True

Excrement from kidneys get collected in the urodeum of the cloaca

170
Q

Describe the urine composition of birds

A

Different from mammals:

Higher concentration of uric acid (urea is predominant in mammals)

Uric acid is Eliminated as a white powder in combination with fecal material (usually green or brown with a ring of white around it (urate))

171
Q

Why is the different urine composition of birds more advantageous

A

More efficient way to get rid of nitrogenous waste:

1) Less water loss
2) Allows embryo to store large amounts of nitrogenous waste with the confines of the shell without dying (wouldn’t be possible with urea since urea is toxic and uric acid is not)

172
Q

Breeding season in birds is often stimulated by____. What does this affect in the bird

A

Increasing day length in parts of the world where seasons are more pronounced

This affects the hypothalamus and causes an increased secretion of gonadotrophic hormones

173
Q

Non breeding animals have very small gonads, which increase in size when

A

Breeding season approaches

174
Q

How are most birds differentiated by sex

A

Many species have very little sexual dimorphism, so the only way to tell sexes apart is by DNA testing (blood test)

175
Q

Describe the testes and where sperm is stored in birds

A

Testes are bean shaped and located internally

Sperm are stored in a pouch called the seminal vesicle (temp here is 4 degrees cooler than body temp) located at the terminal end of the vas deferens

176
Q

The vas deferens carries sperm to the

A

Seminal vesicle and cloaca

177
Q

Describe copulation for males

A

Behaviour stimulated by androgens (from leydig/interstitial cells in the testes)

Some species (galliforms, ratites, and ducks) have a grooved penis that assist in sperm transfer

Other species simply bring cloaca together for copulation

178
Q

True or false

Basic ovarian follicles development and ovulation in birds is similar to mammals

A

True

179
Q

Transfer of the ova into the oviduct is similar in birds to mammals, what differs as the egg passes through the oviduct and uterus

A

The eggs get surrounded by layers of albumin (egg white) the shell membrane, shell and pigments

This means the ova is the egg yolk in an egg

180
Q

Birth of the eggs is through the

A

Cloaca

181
Q

What are the 5 sections of the genital tract in females, how do these 5 sections contribute to the development of the egg

A

1) infundibulum: catches the ovum when released from ovary, fertilization occurs here
2) magnum: secrete albumin
3) isthmus: secretes inner and outer shell membranes onto fertilized ova
4) uterus (shell gland): secretes thin watery albumin, the shell and pigmentation, the eggs spends most of the time here to form egg (uses a lot of calcium)
5) vagina: secretes mucus for egg laying and stores sperm for hours to days

182
Q

What is egg binding/ egg bound birds and why is it considered a medical emergency

A

When the egg fails to pass from the uterus to the cloaca

Since the bird only has one opening for the reproductive, urinary and digestive systems, when and egg is blocking here it prevent urination and defecation (can die very quickly)

Signs: depression, stop eating, penguin like gait

183
Q

How do you treat an egg bound bird

A

Anti-inflammatories
topicals, baths, calcium supplements, manual manipulation or surgically by collapsing the egg with a needle through the cloaca

184
Q

How do you prevent egg binding

A

Avoid obesity

Watch for vent picking and separate affected birds

Ensure adequate calcium in diet

185
Q

Define clutch

A

The number of eggs laid and incubated

Varies in species (1-20)

186
Q

What are determinate layers

A

Total number in clutch Predetermined by number of follicles developing on the ovary

187
Q

What are indeterminate layers (most birds)

A

Eggs are continuously produced until a set number is reached in the nest

If eggs are removed the bird will continue to lay indefinitely

The signal to stop includes visual, tactile and hormonal influences indicating a full clutch (birds literally counts)

188
Q

Why are indeterminate layers beneficial with endangered species

A

Will remove eggs and incubate artificially so the bird will continue laying

189
Q

Eggs can be laid every day, every other day, or every 4-5 days
Some species incubate all at once or as eggs are laid
What can this result in

A

Chicks may all hatch and develop at varying times

Or chicks may all hatch and develop synchronously

190
Q

How to birds incubate the eggs

A

Sitting on the eggs/nest to keep eggs at a certain temperature in order to develop (need to be kept warm and humid)

Females have a “brood patch”: featherless patch on the belly where skin folds, thickening and blood circulation create a “heat pad” for eggs

Time for incubation varies with species (longer for larger birds) (budgies: 18 days)

191
Q

What do the 4 classifications of chick depend on?

A

Feather coverage
Open or closed eyes
Mobility

192
Q

What are precocial chicks? Give an example

A

Ducks and geese

Downey feathers, open eyes, mobile

193
Q

What are semiprecocial chicks? Give an example

A

Gulls and terns

Downey feathers, open eyes, may be mobile but remain in nest and dependent on parents

194
Q

What are semialtricial chicks? Give an example

A

Hawks and owls

Downey feathers, open (hawks) or closed (owls) eyes, not mobile

Confined to nest for care

195
Q

What are altricial chicks? Give an example

A

Song birds

Little to no feathers, closed eyes, not mobile

Exotics (11 decks)

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