Lecture 2 Flashcards
Classes of noun
PROPER NOUN
- Berlin, Mary, Christmas
COMMON NOUN
- COUNTABLE
- cat, thing, assumption
- UNCOUNTABLE
- butter, furniture, permission
Proper nouns and proper names
• Proper nouns vs proper names
– Elevating the notion ’proper name’ (or just ’name’) to a type of NP is one possible solution. So:
– Proper nouns may function as heads of proper names or as heads of ’ordinary’ NPs (like a Mary, etc.)
– Common nouns may also function as heads of proper names:
• The White House, The Observer, The United States
– In fact, a lot of structures that are not even NPs can be proper names. For example, titles of books and other works of art: Who’s afraid of Virginia Woolf?, To the Lighthouse, etc.
Common nouns: [C] and [U]
- Indefinite article
- Numerals as determiners
- Singular or plural
- Plural or singular quantifiers
- Pronominal uses of one
some differences
Countables (e.g. car) / Uncountables (e.g. news)
May take the indef. art. /Do not take the indef art
Bill had a great car. / *Bill had a great news.
Take numerals as determiners / Do not take…¹
Bill had two great cars. / *Bill had two great news.
May be singular or plural / Always singular¹
This car is nice. / This news is nice.
These cars are nice. / *These news are nice.
Take plural quantifiers (e.g. many) / Take singular quantifiers (e.g. much)¹
Bill had many cars. / Bill didn’t have*many/much news.
OK with various pronominal uses of one / No pronominal uses of one
This car is new, but that one is old. / This furniture is new but that (*one) is old.
¹These only apply to singular uncountables.
Countable and Uncountable uses
- Countability is a feature of the interpretation of nouns.
- Thus, in some cases, one and the same noun may be used either with a countable or uncountable interpretation.
- Nevertheless, it makes sense to talk about nouns as basically countable or basically uncountable – as long as we remember that it is interpretations or uses we are talking about.
- Basically [U] used as [C]: Two main types
We’ll have two coffees, please. (’servings of’)
Bill wrote a book about the wines of France. (’kinds of’)
• Basically [C] used as [U]
We’re having chicken for dinner.
There was cat all over the road.
Plural uncountables: scissors, trousers, etc
• This is the class of so called bipartite nouns, i.e. nouns referring to clothes, tools, and instruments that consist of two parts.
• More examples: scissors, tweezers, binoculars, glasses, jeans, pants
• Arguments for saying that these are uncountable:
– No number contrast: *scissor, *tweezer, *trouser, *jean
– Need unit nouns for ’counting’
two pairs of trousers – \*two trousers (actually OK for some) • How good are the arguments?
– Singular in compounds/as modifiers:
a trouser-leg, ladies’ trouser suits
– Singular in the type-of interpretation (maybe an argument for [U])
This scissor never needs sharpening. (_must_ refer to type, not individual specimen)
Package nouns (LSGSWE’s term)
• Unit nouns: ”Cut up” uncountables into individual units – which can then be counted.
• All unit nouns are countable
• The general unit noun piece combines with a
wide range of uncountables:
– a piece of bacon/chalk/coal/land/paper…
– a piece of advice/information/news/research/work…
• Other quite general unit nouns: bit, item
– a bit of chalk/cake/wood/fun/luck/help…
– an item of clothing/equipment/news/…
Specialized/Typical unit nouns
• Many unit nouns occur with a much narrower range of uncountables:
– a grain of sand/truth
– a bar of chocolate/soap/gold
– a drop of water/oil/whisky
– a speck of dust/dirt
– a lump of coal/sugar
– a loaf of bread
– a rasher of bacon ’a thin slice of bacon’
Quantifying nouns
• When combined with uncountables, quantifying nouns are similar,
if not identical, to unit nouns.
• Quantifying nouns, however, also combine with plural countables.
– See LSGSWE 4.4.3 for a classification of quantifying nouns.
a box of a heap of a pint of
hundreds of a mouthful of a pair of – Note than some subtypes only combine with plural nouns: • hundreds of cars but \*hundreds of furniture • a pair of pants(plural [U], remember?) but \*a pair of furniture • In general, as the term suggests, quantificational nouns have meanings related to the quantification/ measurement of entities. • Noticeably absent from the list: **a lot of**. Possible reason: a lot of is **number-transparent**, **hence quite naturally analyzed as a quantifier**: a lot of furniture was… but a lot of people were...
Quantifiers vs Quantifying nouns
_Quantifiers vs Quantifying nouns _
• Quantifiers function as determiners in NP, and the entity they quantify over is the head of the NP.
– [Many/A lot of] cars are much better than mine.
• Quantifying nouns head their NP and the entity they quantify over occurs inside a postmodifying PP.
– A basket [of eggs] was waiting for us in our hotel suite.
• In reality the distinction is slightly problematic:
A number of spots have/*has appeared on the new rug.
The number of spots on the carpet has/*have increased.
Heaps of money has/*have been spent.
of-collectives
of-collectives
• Similar both to unit nouns and quantifying nouns, but only combine with plural nouns:
a bunch of idiots/thieves/roses
a crowd of demonstrators/fans
a band of brothers/pioneers/followers
a pack of hounds/wolves
• Again, there are problems in identifying the head of the NP (as well as dialectal differences since these are collective nouns):
A bunch of hooligans were/??was waiting for me outside the pub.
A bunch of flowers was/?were presented to the nice grammar teacher
Species nouns
Species nouns
• Refers to types of entities rather than quantity.
• Some specialization
make of N – typically about manufactured things (cars, computers, chairs, etc.)
species of – typically animals, plants
• General species nouns
type/sort/kind of
• Can be followed by countables or uncountables in the postmodifying of-phrase.
• Some agreement issues
These types of cars/car
What sort of thing/things
The safest bet is to use the same number in the species noun and the noun in the of-phrase.
Determiners: The word class
Determiners: The word class
• The clear cases (at least in LSGSWE):
– articles: indefinite, definite, zero: a car, the car, __ cars
– possessive determiners: my car, their car, etc.
– demonstrative determiners: this car, those cars, etc.
– quantifiers: all, every, etc.
• Note 1: The word class determiner includes a few more subclasses than we are used to.
• Note 2: It is perfectly fine to define word classes in terms of function.
– So, for example, possessive determiners are determiners because they function as determiners.
– Cf. adjectives vs adverbs:
• He runs fast. (fast is an adverb because it modifies a verb/functions as an adverbial)
• He is a fast runner. (fast is an adjective because it modifies a noun)
Numerals
Another seemingly clear case: Numerals
• ”As a word class, numerals consist of a small set of simple
forms /…/” (LSGSWE, p. 34)[my emphasis]
– Numerals have two main functions:
• Determiner (Postdeterminer)
Kim has written fivebooks on this topic.
His first two books were published in 1987.
• Head of NP (similar to pronouns)
Mary bought one book, but I bought two.
Mary bought a book, and I bought one, too.
cf.
Mary liked the book and I liked it, too.
– Million-dollar questions:
• If we have, e.g. possessive determiners and possessive pronouns as different word classes, why don’t we have ”numeral determiners” and ”numeral pronouns” as different word classes?
• Conversely: If numerals form a word class, and numerals can function as determiners or heads of NPs, why don’t we say the same about, e.g. possessive pronouns?
Types of reference
1) Individual entities
- Indefinite reference
- Specific: Mary wants to date a Swede. (Has someone in mind.)
- Unspecific (non-specific): Mary wants to date a Swede. (Has no one special in mind)
- Definite reference: Mary married the Swede.
2) Classes (Generic reference): Mary likes Swedes
Reference and the indefinite article
• Reference to individual entities
– Indefinite + Specific
I met a man at the supermarket yesterday.
– Indefinite + Unspecific
Mary needed a date for the ball.
• Generic
An elephant never forgets.
Generic reference: possible forms of NPs
