Grammar Eng A21 - Lecture 1 Flashcards
Determiners:
The articles
Demonstrative determiners
Possessive determiners
Quantifiers
Wh-determiners
Determiners
- The articles the car, a car
- Demonstrative determiners this car, those cars
- Possessive determiners my car, her cars
* Quantifiers some cars
* Wh-determiners what car
LSGSWE, p. 32: ”wh-words do not form an independent word class. Instead, they are members of word classes already mentioned, especially determiners, pronouns, and adverbs.”
– Differences compared to other classifications:
* Demonstrative determiners are ”related to” demonstrative pronouns * Possessive determiners are ”related to” possessive pronouns * Quantifiers are ”related to” indefinite pronouns
Personal pronouns
PRONOUNS RELATED DETERMINERS
• Personal pronouns
he, she, it, etc
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative determiners
PRONOUNS RELATED DETERMINERS
Demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative determiners
I like these. I like these cars.
I like that. I like that car.
• Reflexive pronouns
PRONOUNS RELATED DETERMINERS
• Reflexive pronouns
himself, herself, etc
• Reciprocal pronouns
PRONOUNS RELATED DETERMINERS
• Reciprocal pronouns ?Reciprocal determiners?
They like each other. They like each other’s cars.
• Possessive pronouns
Possessive determiners
PRONOUNS RELATED DETERMINERS
• Possessive pronouns Possessive determiners
This car is mine. my car
• Indefinite pronouns
Quantifiers
PRONOUNS RELATED DETERMINERS
Indefinite pronouns Quantifiers
I heard something. some people
Auxiliary verbs
• ’Closed class’, which is why it counts as a function word class
• Auxiliary verbs precede the lexical verb in the ’small’ VP
• Two types (or maybe three):
– Primary auxiliaries
– Modal auxiliaries
– Semi-modals (marginal modals)
Primary auxiliaries:
Primary auxiliaries: have, be, do
(Kristy’s reminder: “I primarily have a bee-_do_”)
• Help form important verb constructions
– be
• Progressive aspect: I’m walking in Memphis.
• Passive voice: The book was sent three weeks ago.
– have
• Perfect aspect: I have never seen anything like it.
– do
• do insertion (do-support, do-periphrasis):I didn’t know where to go.
• All three also have uses as lexical verbs:
– be
• He was half asleep.
– have
• We had lunch at 2 o’clock.
– do
• Elisa never does her homework.
Test Review:
Past participle
Used by the perfective (has, had…)
laughed
come
set
said…
Modal auxiliaries
- Definition
- two types plus examples
Express modality (permission, obligation, necessity, etc.)
Intrinsic/personal modality (done by an agent)
- May I smoke in here? (permission)
- Can Mary come out to play? (permission)
- You mustn’t hit your little brother. (obligation)
- You shouldn’t hit your little brother. (obligation)
- If you would only be quiet, I could finish this in no time. (volition)
Extrinsic/logical modality (logical status of states or events)
- This may be a true story. (Possibility)
- This could not possibly be true. (Possibility)
- The Johnsons must have a lot of money. (Logical necessity)
- The meeting should be over by now. (Likelihood)
- I will see my children tomorrow. (Prediction)
• ”In practice the modals can be regarded as invariable function words, with no inflections” … most modals have a contracted negative form ending in n’t…(p. 28)
• Apparent tense distinctions in modals have very
little to do with time.
• Instead, past tense forms often indicate greater
tentativeness/indirectness:
– weaker possibility/likelihood
• He may have been telling us a lie.
• He might have been telling us a lie.
• This can turn out to be a problem.
• This could turn out to be a problem.
– weaker permission
• Can I talk to you for a minute?
• Could I talk to you for a minute?
Semi-modals
Semi-modals
• Semantically similar to modal auxiliaries (i.e. they express obligation, possibility, future, etc.) BUT:
• Many semi-modals have non-finite forms, e.g. infinitive forms
– The police will have to search the whole area.
– This might explain why Noah would have needed to gather only two of every major kind (ie, family or genus) of animal onto the Ark.
• Typically, semi-modals are followed by a to-infinitive (actually, to is semantically part of the verb)
– We are supposed to leave at six.
– We are going to leave at six.
We will return to semi-modals when discussing verb complementation.
Prepositions
• Syntax: Function as heads of prepositional phrases.
• Structure of prepositional phrases P + Complement
• Complements of prepositions are typically NPs, but may
take other forms as well:
– Bill was in the room (NP)
– Before too long my friends were far ahead of me. (AdvP)
– We can rely on Bill(’s) going home early. (non-finite clause)
• Semantics: Indicate relations between entitities (both physically and metaphorically)
– Bill is in the room.
– Bill is in love.
– Bill is interested in sports
Adverbial particles
• Used to build phrasal verbs.
• Different distribution from other ’short’ adverbs.
– Bring in the chair from the kitchen.
– *** **Bring here the chair from the kitchen.
• Often same form as prepositions, but
– Prepositions obligatorily take complements, adverbial
particles do not:
We walked up the steps. (prep)
We walked up. (adv. particle)
Coordinators:
_ and, but, or_
• Coordination at different levels:
– word-level
He always wore white shoes and pants. (head of NP)
He can read and write. (head of VP)
I’ll do it with or without your help. (head of PP)
– phrase-level
My brother and his wife are coming to visit. (NP)
My brother made me feel extremely stupid and very small.
(AP)
James drives very slowly and very carefully. (AdvP)
– clause-level
Bill joined the club but he never went to any of the meetings.
Subordinators
• Introduce dependent clauses.
• When the dependent clause functions as an adverbial the
subordinator indicates its semantic role. A few examples:
– Condition
If you should see Bill, tell him I want to talk to him.
– Time
When you see Bill, tell him I want to talk to him.
– Concession
Bill still hasn’t fixed my bike, although I asked him to.
• Subordinators also introduce complement clauses (nominal clauses)
I told Bill that I wanted him to fix my car.
NP: premodifiers
• Occur before the head:
[short] hair
[blue] shoes
an [internal] memo
a [very tall] [handsome] stranger
• As the last example shows, an NP may contain more
than one premodifier.
• Typically, premodifiers have the form of Adj.P, but
other phrases may also have this function:
a [recently published] article (VP)
these [Indian cotton] shirts (NP)
the [downstairs] room (AdvP)
NP: postmodifiers
(GAP)
• Occur after the head
a woman [of great wisdom]
my career [as a journalist]
people [living next to the power plant]
the book [about syntax] [that I lent you]
• As the last example shows, an NP may contain more
than one postmodifier.
• Postmodifiers in NP typically have the form of PP or
dependent clause, but other phrases may also have
this function:
a man my age
all people now alive
(i) the man [that we met ∆ yesterday] (object gap = the man)
(iii) the man [to talk to ∆] (gap is the complement of P (= the man))
NP: Complements
(NO GAP) - Reminder- no gap teeth = complements
• Complement clauses differ from postmodifying clauses in _not having a gap _
corresponding to the head noun.
(ii) the rumor [that Ford would close down the factory] (no gap)
(iv) her refusal to show any sign of emotion
• Very often, a complement clause in an NP corresponds to the object of a verb:
Compare (iv) with the corresponding clause:
She refused [to show any sign of emotion].
Few words that take a complement:
rumor, claim, etc.
Subject: Gap or No Gap, that is the question
The rumor that Bill spread went around town.
The rumor that Bill spread went around town.
Has a Gap
Postmodifier
Object (?)
The rumor that Bill is crazy has gone around town.
The rumor _that Bill is crazy _has gone around town.
NO Gap
Complement
Subject: Identify the dependent clauses and their functions…
To be absolutely honest, I’m not very fond of the big lamp.
To be absolutely honest, I’m not very fond of the big lamp.
Fxn: Adverbial
Bill’s first book about the love-life of grasshoppers did not impress any of the critics that reviewed it.
Bill’s first book about the love-life of grasshoppers did not impress any of the critics that reviewed it.
GAP = Postmodifier
(Subject gap)
If you see Mary please don’t tell her about the skeleton in her cupboard.
If you see Mary please don’t tell her about the skeleton in her cupboard.
Adverbial
Everyone in the grammar class had heard the rumour that the test was really difficult.
Everyone in the grammar class had heard the rumour that the test was really difficult.
No Gap
Complement
While we were waiting for the bus, Bill played a tune from West Africa on his guitar.
While we were waiting for the bus, Bill played a tune from West Africa on his guitar.
Adverbial
His favorite pastime is playing soccer with his childhood friends from Malmö.
His favorite pastime is playing soccer with his childhood friends from Malmö.
Subject Predicative
The man in the room next to mine insists that the hotel is haunted.
The man in the room next to mine insists that the hotel is haunted.
Direct Object
To be honest, Bill has not made much progress since his last attempt at the record.
To be honest, Bill has not made much progress since his last attempt at the record.
Adverbial
The first runner to qualify for the finals was the teenager from the Bahamas.
The first runner to qualify for the finals was the teenager from the Bahamas.
? Infinitive clause- noun complement
Standing alone on a sandy beach on a rainy day in July is not my idea of a good time.
Standing alone on a sandy beach on a rainy day in July is not my idea of a good time.
Subject
Adjective Phrases
- 2 types
• Internal structure
– HEAD
– Modifiers
– Complement
(We will deal with the difference between modifiers and complements later)
• External distribution
– Premodifier in NP – attributive APs
– Predicative – predicative APs
Adverb Phrases
• Internal structure
– HEAD
– Modifiers
– Complements
• External distribution
– Modifier in AdjP
– Modifier in AdvP
– Adverbial in clause structure
Prepositional Phrases
• Internal structure
– HEAD
– Prepositional complement
– Modifiers
right under his eyes
• External distribution
– Adverbial in clause structure
– Postmodifier in NP, AP, AdvP
– Complement in AP, AdvP (and, possibly, NP)
– Predicative
What is a prepositional object?
• LSGSWE Glossary of terms (p. 459)
– prepositional object: a noun phrase (or nominal clause, etc.) which normally follows the preposition of a prepositional verb, and which resembles the object of a transitive verb:
- asked for permission*.
(A prepositional object is a special type of prepositional complement.)
– OK, so it is a function at the phrase level – a ”type of prepositional complement”
• LSGSWE (Table 8.1, p. 226)
– Prepositional object is listed as a clause element on a par with S, V, O, P, A, in effect a kind of object
• See relevant discussion on p. 130
What is a complement clause?
• LSGSWE Glossary of terms (p. 456)
– complement clause: a dependent clause controlled by a preceding verb, adjective, noun or preposition
• LSGSWE (p. 256f)
– ”Complement clauses are also called nominal clauses, because their syntactic roles are comparable to those of a noun phrase. Thus they are used as subject, predicative, or object in the main clause.”
– ”Complement clauses can also occur within phrases /…/, as complements of noun, adjective, or preposition”
• So, in fact, ’complement clause’ is not a special clause element, but rather a short-hand term for clauses in the functions mentioned above.
