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lecture 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is theory of mind?

A

the insight that people hold mental states, and these govern behaviour

allows us to make sense of the social world by predicting and explaining people’s actions

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2
Q

what is desire based theory of mind?

A

do children understand that other people’s desires can differ from theirs

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3
Q

who conducted the broccoli/crackers study?

A

Repacholi and Gopnik (1997)

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4
Q

what was the procedure of Repacholi and Gopnik’s broccoli/crackers study?

A

children preferred crackers

adults acted as though they preferred the broccoli

asked the child to give them either food

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5
Q

what were the results of Repacholi and Gopnik’s broccoli/crackers study?

A

18 month olds but not 14 month olds understood that the experimenter’s desired food differed from theirs

understand that desire is a subjective mental state which differs between people

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6
Q

what is belief based theory of mind?

A

distinction between the mind and the world

understand that a person has their own representation of the world

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7
Q

how can we test if someone has theory of mind?

A

false belief test

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8
Q

what is a false belief test?

A

tests whether a child can represent what another person believes in contrast to their own beliefs/reality

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9
Q

what is a true belief task?

A

tests whether a child can represent another person’s beliefs when that belief matches their own beliefs or reality

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10
Q

who conducted the unexpected transfer task method?

A

Wimmer and Perner (1983)

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11
Q

what happens in the unexpected transfer task method?

A

Maxi puts his chocolate in the cupboard
goes to play outside
Mom moves it to the fridge
test question= ‘Where will Maxi look for his chocolate?’

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12
Q

what are the results of the unexpected transfer task?

A

> 5 years old= Maxi will look in the cupboard
<5 years old= Maxi will look in the fridge

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13
Q

what happens in the Sally Ann task?

A

child is shown two dolls= one called Sally and one called Ann

Sally puts a box in her box then goes and plays outside

Ann takes this box out and puts it in her basket

child asked where Sally will think the box is

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14
Q

what happens in the deceptive box task?

A

shown a box of smarties, but there are actually pencils inside it

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15
Q

what did Perner et al (1987) find out about the deceptive box task?

A

asked children what they think is inside the tube/what is actually inside the tube/what will your friend think is inside the box

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16
Q

what did Gopnik and Astington (1988) find out about the deceptive box task?

A

when you first saw the tube, before we opened it, what did you think was inside

3-4 year olds have difficulties acknowledging false beliefs in others, and their own prior false beliefs

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16
Q

at what age do children usually fail false belief tasks?

A

3

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17
Q

at what age do children usually pass false belief tasks?

A

4 years old

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18
Q

what age are children said to acquire a theory of mind?

A

age 4

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19
Q

what happened in Wellman, Cross and Watson’s study (2001)?

A

meta-analysis of 178 studies

support for substantial developmental progress over preschool years

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20
Q

what did Wellman, Cross and Watson (2001) suggest improves performance for theory of mind?

A

deceptive motive

active participation

salience of mental state

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21
Q

what did Wellman, Cross and Watson (2001) suggest has no impact on theory of mind performance?

A

type of task

type of question

nature of the protagonist or object

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22
Q

what were the effect of variable manipulations on theory of mind performance?

A

although manipulating certain variables improved performance, this happened across all ages, not just younger children

none of the variable manipulations improved performance of 3 year olds above chance

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23
Q

who conducted cross cultural comparisons?

A

Callaghan et al, 2005

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24
Q

what did Callaghan find out about cross cultrual comparisons?

A

despite leading different lives, children in industrialised societies and those in more rural societies show similar developmental shifts between 3 and 5 years

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25
Q

how does social experience contribute to theory of mind development?

A

helps understanding of mental states when we interact with other people?

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26
Q

how does biological maturation contribute to theory of mind development?

A

improvement in executive functioning means children can express their understanding of mental states

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27
Q

who investigated how experience can contribute to theory of mind development?

A

Harris, 1999

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28
Q

how can experience contribute to theory of mind development?

A

conversations expose children to other’s perspectives

provide children with the vocabulary needed to discuss and reflect on mental states

29
Q

how can the family impact theory of mind development?

A

children with older siblings show earlier theory of mind

children whose parents talk about mental states understand false belief earlier than other children

deaf children show a developmental delay on false belief tasks if their parents can’t sign

30
Q

who proposed the theory of mind scale?

A

wellman and liu (2004)

31
Q

what are the 5 parts of the theory of mind scale?

A

diverse desires

diverse beliefs

knowledge access

false belief

hidden emotion

32
Q

what are diverse desires?

A

people can have different desires for the same thing?

33
Q

what are diverse beliefs?

A

people can have different beliefs about the same situation

34
Q

what is knowledge access?

A

something can be true, but someone may not know what

35
Q

what is false belief?

A

something can be true, but someone may falsely believe something different

36
Q

what is hidden emotion?

A

someone can feel one way but display a different emotion

37
Q

who investigated cross cultural differences in the theory of mind scale?

A

wellman et al (2006)

38
Q

what did wellman find about cross cultrual differences in the theory of mind scale?

A

children in western countries: DD>DB>KA>FB>HE

children from China and Iran: DD>KA>DB>FB>HE

39
Q

what are executive functions?

A

set of general cognitve abilities which help us to control and guide our attention/behaviour

40
Q

what are examples of executive functions?

A

inhibition

cognitive flexibility

working memory

41
Q

what is inhibition?

A

ignoring distracting information/suppressing unwanted responses

42
Q

what is an example of inhibition in a laboratory setting?

A

stroop task

43
Q

what is cognitive flexibility?

A

responding to the same thing in different ways depending on the context

44
Q

what is an example of cognitive flexibility in the lab?

A

wisconsin card sorting task

45
Q

what is working memory?

A

holding important information or a goal in your mind

46
Q

what is an example of working memory in the lab?

A

digit span

47
Q

which part of the brain is responsible for executive functions?

A

frontal lobes

48
Q

when do important developments in inhibitory control take place?

A

within the first 6 years of life

49
Q

what is the role of executive function in false belief tasks?

A

strong positive correlation between children’s inhibitory control and false belief task performance

suggests inhibitory control and theory of mind may be related

50
Q

what does inhibitory control affect in terms of mental state knowledge?

A

its emergence and expression

51
Q

what is explicit knowledge?

A

knowledge is easily accessible to the child

52
Q

how do we measure explicit knowledge?

A

measure via elicited response

53
Q

what is implicit knowledge?

A

knowledge the child is unaware of

54
Q

who assessed implicit understanding of false belief?

A

Moll et al, 2016

55
Q

how did Moll et al, 2016 assess implicit understanding of false belief?

A

investigated children’s facial expressions to investigate their belief understanding

predicted that if 3 year olds perceive a conflict between a person’s belief and reality, they will show signs of suspense

56
Q

what did Moll et al, 2016 find out about implicit understanding of false belief?

A

found greater instances of expressed tension in the false belief compared to the true belief condition (this suggests that 3 year olds expressed knowledge of another’s false belief)

children’s performance on a class false belief task was poor, unrelated to the number of expressions they displayed whilst watching the false belief videos (expressions are independent from and emerge prior to explicit knowledge of false beliefs)

57
Q

what was Clements and Perner’s aim when investigating implicit understanding of false belief?

A

get evidence for a period of implicit understanding for false belief which precedes explicit understanding

58
Q

how did Clements and Perner investigate implicit understanding of false belief?

A

tested 44 children aged 2 years, 5 months- 4 years, 6 months
used an unexpected transfer task

59
Q

what is the anticipatory looking paradigm?

A

aim= to see if infants can predict events in the world

60
Q

how does the anticipatory looking paradigm work?

A

measures the direction of an infant’s first look after an event

analysed to see if they correctly anticipate what will happen next

61
Q

who investigated the anticipatory looking paradigm?

A

Clements and Perner (1994)

62
Q

what happened in Clements and Perner’s task (1994) for anticipatory looking?

A

Sam goes to sleep
Katie moves the cheese
Sam wakes up- I wonder where he’s going to get his cheese

2 second pause recording the child’s eye gaze (implicit measure)

which box will he open first (explicit measure)

63
Q

what were the results of Clements and Perner’s 1994 anticipatory looking task?

A

86% of children over 2 years 11 months showed looking patterns suggesting false belief understanding

many still gave the incorrect answer, even after looking at the correct place

large gap between implicit and explicit understanding at this age

64
Q

who used the violation of expectancy method to assess for implicit false belief understanding in 15 month old infants?

A

Onishi and Baillargeon (2005)

65
Q

how did Onishi and Baillargeon (2005) use the violation of expectancy method to assess for implicit false belief understanding in 15 month old infants?

A

familiarised an infant to an event

presented test behaviour which was either consistent or inconsistent with the prior event

if the infant looked for longer at the inconsistent event- shows surprise

indicates some level of knowledge about what should happen

66
Q

what was the method for Onishi and Baillargeon (2005)’s violation of expectancy method to assess for implicit false belief understanding in 15 month old infants?

A

actor hid and then retrieved a toy in either a yellow or green box

looked for significantly longer when expectation was violated- actor’s action inconsistent with belief

infant’s expect people to search for the objects where they were originally located- suggesting they have false belief understanding

67
Q
A
68
Q

who proposed the dual route model?

A

Apperly and Butterfill, 2009

69
Q

what are the two systems in the dual route model?

A

fast and efficient system
slow and cognitively demanding system

developmental psych (10 decks)

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