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Pathophysiology > Lecture 2 > Flashcards

Lecture 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Organization of the Nervous system

A

Organization of the Nervous system
* CNS/PNS, cells, nerves/tracts
* Nerve Impulses
* resting membrane potential, local potentials, action potentials, synaptic transmission

  • Central Nervous System
  • coverings, CSF, spinal cord, brain
  • Peripheral Nervous System
  • spinal nerve, Somatic nervous system (skeletal muscle) , autonomic nervous system (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands), sensory receptors
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2
Q

Afferent (Sensory - information flow

A

Incoming from sensory organs(PNS) to CNS
receptors for touch, pain, temperature and vibration to CNS for interpretation - Uni polar
nerve impulses TO spinal cord/brain

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3
Q

Efferent (Motor) - information flow

A

Outgoing pathways in CNS outward to effectors (muscles and glands)
multipolar
nerve impulses AWAY from spinal cord/brain

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4
Q

interneurons

A

connect sensory and motor neurons
direct the impulse to other areas of the brain or spinal cord
multipolar

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5
Q

Somatic
Control of effectors

A

SNS
voluntary muscles - skin, joints, skeletal muscles, and special senses.
under conscious control
Consists of efferent nerves

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6
Q

AutonomicANS

A

charge of body automatic functions respiratory or GI
smooth and cardiac muscle

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7
Q

Cells of the Nervous System in the CNS

A

astrocytes
olgiodentrocytes
microglia
ependyma

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8
Q

Astrocytes (star shaped)

A
  • Feeds neurons (glucose)
  • helps form/regulate the blood brain barrier
    forms scar tissue,
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9
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytic cells of the nervous system
defend against pathogens

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10
Q

Ependymal Cells

A
  • they COMBINE with blood vessels to form
    the “choroid plexus” (production of CSF)
  • help circulate CSF
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11
Q

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

A
  • myelin is a lipid protein
  • insulating layer important for transmission of action potentials
  • one cell covers portions of many axons
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12
Q

Cells of the Nervous System -PNS

A

SCHWANN CELLS
SATELITTE CELLS

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13
Q

Schwann Cells (PNS)

A

produce myelin around a portion of only one axon
contain large amounts of myelin and wrap around axons to insulate them
* gaps in sheath (between adjacent Schwann cells) are Nodes of Ranvier
* myelin sheath and microscopic gaps important for conduction of impulses

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14
Q

Structure OF NEURONS

A

Function
* to conduct nerve impulses

cell body
* receive stimuli, transmit action potential to other nerves and/or effectors

dendrites
* short, highly branched dendritic spines synapse with axons of other neurons
* respond to neurotransmitters and transmit TO the cell body

axons
* conduct impulses AWAY from the cell body

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15
Q

Functional Zones: of neuron

A

Input Zone (dendrites & cell body)
* Summation Zone (axon hillock)
* Conduction Zone (axon)
* Output Zone (presynaptic terminals of axon)

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16
Q

Nerves

A

bundles of peripheral nerve fibres surrounded by connective tissue

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17
Q

Tracts

A

bundles of nerve fibres in the CNS

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18
Q

White Matter

A

bundles of myelinated fibres (nerves or tracts)

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19
Q

Gray Matter

A

cell bodies & unmyelinated fibres
* Collection of neuron cell bodies in PNS = ganglia
* Collection of neuron cell bodies in CNS = nuclei

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20
Q

Cell Membrane Potentials

A

At rest , a neuron cell membrane is polarized :
* There is an inequality of positive and negative ions along the cell membrane
* This difference in electrical charge is called membrane potential
* Magnitude is measured in millivolts (mV)
* E.g. -70mV or +30mV

  • Resting membrane potential (RMP)
    Inside of cell more negatively charged
  • Outside of cell more positively charged
  • Typically -70mV
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21
Q

local potential

A

shift away from RMP in a specific region of the plasma membrane is called a local potential
* Occurs when a cell membrane is stimulated
* Adjacent cell
* Neurotransmitter
* Electrical charge
* Physical stimulation

they are graded

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22
Q

what is Action Potential

A

When a local potential causes depolarization of the plasma membrane to a “threshold” level, permeability changes occur that result in an action potential
* Action potential – large change in membrane potential that propagates over long distances
* Action potential = nerve impulse

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23
Q

Action Potential – How its achieved

A

Stimulus triggers a local potential
* If a threshold is reached (-59mV), more Na+ channels open
* Na+ moves into the cell making the inside more positively charged
* At the peak sodium channels close and K+ rapidly diffuses out to restore the RMP (“re”polarize)
* If threshold is not reached – then no action potential

In myelinated fibres, action potentials occur at Nodes of Ranvier
(saltatory conduction – leaps from node to node)

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24
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

Membrane resists restimulation no matter how strong the stimulus

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25
Relative refractory period
membrane responds to only very strong stimuli
26
Synapse
place where nerve information is transmitted from one neuron to another * Between synaptic knobs (end of axon) of one neuron and dendrites of another neuron or effector
27
Different types of synapse
Electrical- gap junctions, action potential crosses * Chemical – use of neurotransmitter to send signal * Synaptic knob (end of axon containing neurotransmitters) * Synaptic cleft (space) * Plasma membrane of postsynaptic neuron (has receptors)
28
Mechanism of Synaptic Transmission
Action potential reaches synaptic knob (terminal end of axon). * Neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft. * Neurotransmitter bind to receptors in postsynaptic neuron causing ion channels to open *voltage change occurs * Neurotransmitters are transported back into presynaptic neuron for recycling.
29
Spatial Summation
occurs when stimuli are applied at the same time, but in different areas, with a cumulative effect upon membrane potential
30
Temporal Summation
rapid fire stimulation add up
31
Coverings of the Brain & Spinal Cord
1) Bone (cranial, vertebrae) 2 Meninges - protect the brain and spinal cord * Dura mater - outer toughest layer * Arachnoid mater - spider like * Pia mater - most delicate sits on top of the brain subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and pai matter contains the CSF
32
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (Ach) * norepinephrine *  Amino butyric acid (GABA) * serotonin * endorphins can either be excitatory or inhibitory. regulate effector tissues
33
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
* Bathes, nourishes & protects the brain and spinal cord -subarachnoid space contains it * Helps monitor changes in body’s internal environment * Brain has 4 fluid-filled spaces called Ventricles * First & second lateral ventricles (hemispheres) * Third ventricle (between 2 halves of thalamus) * Fourth ventricle (in hind brain) * Choroid plexi produces CSF in each ventricle
34
Dural Sinuses
Spaces that help return venous blood and CSF back to the general circulation
35
Arachnoid Granulations
Points where CSF returns to circulatory system * Granulations acts as “one-way valves” to prevent backflow of CSF in sinuses into subarachnoid space
36
Cross Section of Spinal Cord
Consists of a peripheral “white” portion and a central “gray” portion * White matter = myelinated axons and dendrites * Gray matter = neuron cell bodies * Anterior (Ventral) Horn * Somatic motor neurons (descending or efferent) * Posterior (Dorsal) Horn * axons of sensory neurons synapse here with ‘association’ neurons (or interneurons) * Lateral Horn * cell bodies of Autonomic Nervous System
37
6 major divisions of the brain
Medulla oblongata * Pons * Midbrain * Cerebellum * Diencephlon * Cerebrum
38
Medulla Oblongata
Attaches to spinal cord * Controls vital autonomic functions coughing sneezing blood pressure
39
Pons
movement sleep center regulates breathing
40
Midbrain
visual and auditory reflexes
41
Cerebellum
Gray matter + white matter to communicate with the cerebrum -balance , skeletal movements, posture, fine movements -found behind the brainstem
42
Diencephalon
Consists of several structures including: * Thalamus * Hypothalamus * Pineal Gland
43
Thalamus
major relay centre to cerebral cortex * most sensory input goes through thalamus * has function in moods and emotional body movements
44
Hypothalamus
Link between mind and body * Links nervous system to endocrine system * Regulates pituitary gland (role in metabolism, reproduction, response to stress) * Reflex centre for olfaction * Pleasure centre * Role in autonomic functions * heart rate, smooth muscle (digestive, blood vessels), skeletal muscle (shivering)
45
Pineal gland
part of the endocrine system, secretes hormones to regulate the body’s rhythm
46
Pituitary gland
Secretes hormones affecting metabolism, reproduction, etc
47
Cerebrum
LARGEST part of the brain Divided into left and right hemisphere by the longitudinal FISSURE ⚫ gyri - brain tissue folds ⚫ sulci - spaces between gyri ⚫ Comprised of four lobes ⚫ frontal -reasoning, motor skills, voluntary control ⚫ parietal - pressure, touch, pain, hot/cold, auditory and visual ⚫ temporal- language and memory ⚫ occipital - visual stimuli interpretation
48
Cerebral Cortex
outer layer of cerebrum * gray matter (neuron cell bodies)
49
Cerebral Medulla
Inner cerebrum - white matter (myelinated fibres)
50
Spinal Nerve
Dorsal (Posterior) Root * carries sensory (afferent) action potentials to spinal cord * Dorsal root ganglia - collection of cell bodies of sensory nerves, axons from these neurons -form the dorsal root * Ventral (Anterior) Root * Carries efferent action potentials away from the cord
51
part of ANS Sympathetic (Fight or Flight) maintain or restore homeostasis
Responds to impending danger or stress * Increases: heart rate, blood pressure, sense of excitement, blood flow to muscles, O2 intake, light intake to eye nor eph
52
PART OF ANS Parasympathetic (Rest & Digest) maintain or restore homeostasis
Imparts calm within body slows down everything * Promotes digestion releases acetylcholine
53
Effects of ANS
Circulatory system * Respiratory * Digestive tract * Glands * Urinary Bladder * Spleen
54
Encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain * Viral (sometimes bacterial) * Fever, paralysis, coma
55
Myelitis
Inflammation of the spinal cord * Symptoms similar to encephalitis
56
Bacterial Meningitis
Infection of the meninges * Originates from bloodstream infection * Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae most common agents * Symptoms: * Fever, tachycardia, chills, headache, stiff neck, decrease in consciouness, seizures
57
CSF Analysis
Culture for microorganisms Color * Clear, colorless (normal) * Cloudy (increased cell count or microorganisms) * Yellow (xanthochromia – red cell pigments) Red Blood cells * None (normal) * Grossly bloody (subarachnoid hemorrhage) White Blood cells * 0-6/mm3 (normal) * Increased (infection) Protein * Increased (infections, demyelinating disorders, degenrative diseases) Glucose * Decreased – infections * Increased - diabetes
58
Hydrocephalus
Increased intracranial pressure * blockage of the canals that drain CSF from the ventricles * CSF continues to be produced * Fluid builds inside brain causing pressure that compresses nervous tissue and enlarges the ventricles * Shunt (drainage tube) between ventricles and a body cavity * Susceptible to infection through shunt
59
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Degeneration of previously normal myelin * Results in demyelination throughout white matter in CNS * Plaque lesions replace destroyed myelin * Inflammatory cells invade affected area * Nerve conduction is impaired * Weakness, loss of coordination, visual impairment, speech disturbances * Genetic and environmental susceptibility factors
60
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
Stroke * Death of brain tissue resulting from disruption of its vascular supply * Hemorrhagic stroke (due to bleeding from arteries supplying brain tissue) * Ischemic stroke (due to blockage of arteries supplying brain tissue) * Thrombus (clot in artery) * Embolism (detached thrombus, other foreign body – fat globule, gas bubble motor loss, sensory lossm ataxia, dizzines
61
Dementia
Dementia – destruction of neurons in the CNS
62
Alzheimer disease
Lesions * makes the brain smaller - degenerates * Symptoms – memory loss, short attention spans, disorientation, irritability
63
Creutzfeldt-Jacob (CJD)
Caused by prions (pathogenic protein molecules)
64
Examples of neurotransmitters
acetylcholine, catecholamines (norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin), endorphins, enkephalins, nitric oxide (NO), and other compounds
65
Nerve coverings
a. Endoneurium— surrounds individual fibers within a nerve b. Perineurium— surrounds a group (fascicle) of nerve fibers c. Epineurium— surrounds the entire nerve
66
Huntington disease (HD)
inherited disorder characterized by chorea (purposeless movement) progressing to severe dementia
67
HIV
(also causes AIDS) can infect neurons and thus cause dementia
68
Electroencephalogram
graphic representation of voltage changes in the brain used to evaluate brain activity
69
neurilemma
The outer wrapped layer of a Schwann cel
70
Synapse made of three structures
synaptic knob, synaptic cleft, and plasma membrane
71
ions play a role in the generation of nerve impulses
K
72
Guillain-Barré syndrome
disorder of the peripheral nervous system muscle weakness that begins in the distal limbs.
73
At which vertebral level does the spinal cord end
. First lumbar vertebra
74
cervical enlargement
thickening in the neck region of the spinal cord.
75
Conscious reflex inhibition
occur because the impulse goes to the cerebral cortex.
76
Axon diameter
affects the speed of impulse conduction.
77
descending track
carries MOTOR information from the brain to the muscles and glands.
78
ascending track
SENSORY information to the brain
79
Reflex arcs
can cause a motor response without getting information from the brain
80
corpus callosum
connects the cerebral hemispheres
81
Parkinson's disease
slowly progressive disorder affecting muscle movement and balance
82
MRI
detect bleeding in the brain or spinal cord
83
PET
diagnose Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases
84
Cerebral angiography
detecting aneurysms - ballooning of blood vessel
85
Epilepsy
repeated, spontaneous seizures
86
as Lou Gehrig's disease
degenerative disease of the spinal cord and brain amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
87
Which is the correct sequence of the structures by which an impulse passes through a reflex arc
Receptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, effectors
88
Which two distinct cell types form nervous tissue
Glial cells and neurons
89
multipolar
most numerous type of neuron one axon many dendrites brain and spinal cord
90
bipolar
one axon one dentrite - eyes ears nose
91
unipolar
found in ganglia
92
Glial cells
smaller than neurons and are capable of mitosis

Pathophysiology (6 decks)

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