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Pathophysiology > Lecture 2 > Flashcards

Lecture 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Organization of the Nervous system

A

Organization of the Nervous system
* CNS/PNS, cells, nerves/tracts
* Nerve Impulses
* resting membrane potential, local potentials, action potentials, synaptic transmission

  • Central Nervous System
  • coverings, CSF, spinal cord, brain
  • Peripheral Nervous System
  • spinal nerve, Somatic nervous system (skeletal muscle) , autonomic nervous system (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands), sensory receptors
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2
Q

Afferent (Sensory - information flow

A

Incoming from sensory organs(PNS) to CNS
receptors for touch, pain, temperature and vibration to CNS for interpretation - Uni polar
nerve impulses TO spinal cord/brain

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3
Q

Efferent (Motor) - information flow

A

Outgoing pathways in CNS outward to effectors (muscles and glands)
multipolar
nerve impulses AWAY from spinal cord/brain

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4
Q

interneurons

A

connect sensory and motor neurons
direct the impulse to other areas of the brain or spinal cord
multipolar

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5
Q

Somatic
Control of effectors

A

SNS
voluntary muscles - skin, joints, skeletal muscles, and special senses.
under conscious control
Consists of efferent nerves

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6
Q

AutonomicANS

A

charge of body automatic functions respiratory or GI
smooth and cardiac muscle

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7
Q

Cells of the Nervous System in the CNS

A

astrocytes
olgiodentrocytes
microglia
ependyma

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8
Q

Astrocytes (star shaped)

A
  • Feeds neurons (glucose)
  • helps form/regulate the blood brain barrier
    forms scar tissue,
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9
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytic cells of the nervous system
defend against pathogens

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10
Q

Ependymal Cells

A
  • they COMBINE with blood vessels to form
    the “choroid plexus” (production of CSF)
  • help circulate CSF
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11
Q

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

A
  • myelin is a lipid protein
  • insulating layer important for transmission of action potentials
  • one cell covers portions of many axons
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12
Q

Cells of the Nervous System -PNS

A

SCHWANN CELLS
SATELITTE CELLS

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13
Q

Schwann Cells (PNS)

A

produce myelin around a portion of only one axon
contain large amounts of myelin and wrap around axons to insulate them
* gaps in sheath (between adjacent Schwann cells) are Nodes of Ranvier
* myelin sheath and microscopic gaps important for conduction of impulses

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14
Q

Structure OF NEURONS

A

Function
* to conduct nerve impulses

cell body
* receive stimuli, transmit action potential to other nerves and/or effectors

dendrites
* short, highly branched dendritic spines synapse with axons of other neurons
* respond to neurotransmitters and transmit TO the cell body

axons
* conduct impulses AWAY from the cell body

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15
Q

Functional Zones: of neuron

A

Input Zone (dendrites & cell body)
* Summation Zone (axon hillock)
* Conduction Zone (axon)
* Output Zone (presynaptic terminals of axon)

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16
Q

Nerves

A

bundles of peripheral nerve fibres surrounded by connective tissue

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17
Q

Tracts

A

bundles of nerve fibres in the CNS

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18
Q

White Matter

A

bundles of myelinated fibres (nerves or tracts)

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19
Q

Gray Matter

A

cell bodies & unmyelinated fibres
* Collection of neuron cell bodies in PNS = ganglia
* Collection of neuron cell bodies in CNS = nuclei

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20
Q

Cell Membrane Potentials

A

At rest , a neuron cell membrane is polarized :
* There is an inequality of positive and negative ions along the cell membrane
* This difference in electrical charge is called membrane potential
* Magnitude is measured in millivolts (mV)
* E.g. -70mV or +30mV

  • Resting membrane potential (RMP)
    Inside of cell more negatively charged
  • Outside of cell more positively charged
  • Typically -70mV
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21
Q

local potential

A

shift away from RMP in a specific region of the plasma membrane is called a local potential
* Occurs when a cell membrane is stimulated
* Adjacent cell
* Neurotransmitter
* Electrical charge
* Physical stimulation

they are graded

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22
Q

what is Action Potential

A

When a local potential causes depolarization of the plasma membrane to a “threshold” level, permeability changes occur that result in an action potential
* Action potential – large change in membrane potential that propagates over long distances
* Action potential = nerve impulse

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23
Q

Action Potential – How its achieved

A

Stimulus triggers a local potential
* If a threshold is reached (-59mV), more Na+ channels open
* Na+ moves into the cell making the inside more positively charged
* At the peak sodium channels close and K+ rapidly diffuses out to restore the RMP (“re”polarize)
* If threshold is not reached – then no action potential

In myelinated fibres, action potentials occur at Nodes of Ranvier
(saltatory conduction – leaps from node to node)

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24
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

Membrane resists restimulation no matter how strong the stimulus

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25
Q

Relative refractory period

A

membrane responds to only very strong
stimuli

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26
Q

Synapse

A

place where nerve information is transmitted from one neuron to another
* Between synaptic knobs (end of axon) of one neuron and dendrites of another neuron or effector

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27
Q

Different types of synapse

A

Electrical- gap junctions, action potential crosses
* Chemical – use of neurotransmitter to send signal
* Synaptic knob (end of axon containing neurotransmitters)
* Synaptic cleft (space)
* Plasma membrane of postsynaptic neuron (has receptors)

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28
Q

Mechanism of Synaptic
Transmission

A

Action potential reaches synaptic knob (terminal end of axon).
* Neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft.
* Neurotransmitter bind to receptors in postsynaptic neuron causing ion channels to open
*voltage change occurs
* Neurotransmitters are transported back into presynaptic neuron for recycling.

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29
Q

Spatial Summation

A

occurs when stimuli are applied at the same time, but in different areas, with a cumulative effect upon membrane potential

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30
Q

Temporal Summation

A

rapid fire stimulation add up

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31
Q

Coverings of the Brain & Spinal Cord

A

1) Bone (cranial, vertebrae)
2 Meninges - protect the brain and spinal cord
* Dura mater - outer toughest layer
* Arachnoid mater - spider like
* Pia mater - most delicate sits on top of the brain
subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and pai matter contains the CSF

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32
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine (Ach)
* norepinephrine
*  Amino butyric acid (GABA)
* serotonin
* endorphins
can either be excitatory or inhibitory.
regulate effector tissues

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33
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

A
  • Bathes, nourishes & protects the brain and spinal cord
    -subarachnoid space contains it
  • Helps monitor changes in body’s internal environment
  • Brain has 4 fluid-filled spaces called Ventricles
  • First & second lateral ventricles (hemispheres)
  • Third ventricle (between 2 halves of thalamus)
  • Fourth ventricle (in hind brain)
  • Choroid plexi produces CSF in each ventricle
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34
Q

Dural Sinuses

A

Spaces that help return venous blood and CSF back to the general circulation

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35
Q

Arachnoid Granulations

A

Points where CSF returns to circulatory system
* Granulations acts as “one-way valves” to prevent backflow of CSF in sinuses into subarachnoid space

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36
Q

Cross Section of Spinal Cord

A

Consists of a peripheral “white” portion and a central “gray” portion
* White matter = myelinated axons and dendrites
* Gray matter = neuron cell bodies
* Anterior (Ventral) Horn
* Somatic motor neurons (descending or efferent)
* Posterior (Dorsal) Horn
* axons of sensory neurons synapse here with ‘association’ neurons (or interneurons)
* Lateral Horn
* cell bodies of Autonomic Nervous System

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37
Q

6 major divisions of
the brain

A

Medulla oblongata
* Pons
* Midbrain
* Cerebellum
* Diencephlon
* Cerebrum

38
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Attaches to spinal cord
* Controls vital autonomic functions
coughing
sneezing
blood pressure

39
Q

Pons

A

movement
sleep center
regulates breathing

40
Q

Midbrain

A

visual and auditory reflexes

41
Q

Cerebellum

A

Gray matter + white matter to communicate with the cerebrum
-balance , skeletal movements, posture, fine movements
-found behind the brainstem

42
Q

Diencephalon

A

Consists of several structures including:
* Thalamus
* Hypothalamus
* Pineal Gland

43
Q

Thalamus

A

major relay centre to cerebral cortex
* most sensory input goes through thalamus

  • has function in moods and emotional body movements
44
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Link between mind and body
* Links nervous system to endocrine system
* Regulates pituitary gland (role in metabolism, reproduction, response to stress)
* Reflex centre for olfaction
* Pleasure centre
* Role in autonomic functions
* heart rate, smooth muscle (digestive, blood vessels), skeletal muscle (shivering)

45
Q

Pineal gland

A

part of the endocrine system, secretes hormones to regulate the body’s rhythm

46
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Secretes hormones affecting metabolism, reproduction, etc

47
Q

Cerebrum

A

LARGEST part of the brain
Divided into left and right hemisphere by the longitudinal FISSURE
⚫ gyri - brain tissue folds
⚫ sulci - spaces between gyri
⚫ Comprised of four lobes
⚫ frontal -reasoning, motor skills, voluntary control
⚫ parietal - pressure, touch, pain, hot/cold, auditory and visual
⚫ temporal- language and memory
⚫ occipital - visual stimuli interpretation

48
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

outer layer of cerebrum
* gray matter (neuron cell bodies)

49
Q

Cerebral Medulla

A

Inner cerebrum - white matter (myelinated fibres)

50
Q

Spinal Nerve

A

Dorsal (Posterior) Root
* carries sensory (afferent) action potentials to spinal cord
* Dorsal root ganglia - collection of cell bodies of sensory nerves, axons from these neurons
-form the dorsal root

  • Ventral (Anterior) Root
  • Carries efferent action potentials away from the cord
51
Q

part of ANS Sympathetic (Fight or Flight)
maintain or restore homeostasis

A

Responds to impending danger or stress
* Increases: heart rate, blood pressure, sense of excitement, blood flow to muscles, O2 intake, light intake to eye
nor eph

52
Q

PART OF ANS Parasympathetic (Rest & Digest)
maintain or restore homeostasis

A

Imparts calm within body slows down everything
* Promotes digestion
releases acetylcholine

53
Q

Effects of ANS

A

Circulatory system

  • Respiratory
  • Digestive tract
  • Glands
  • Urinary Bladder
  • Spleen
54
Q

Encephalitis

A

Inflammation of the brain
* Viral (sometimes bacterial)
* Fever, paralysis, coma

55
Q

Myelitis

A

Inflammation of the spinal cord
* Symptoms similar to encephalitis

56
Q

Bacterial Meningitis

A

Infection of the meninges
* Originates from bloodstream infection
* Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae most common agents
* Symptoms:
* Fever, tachycardia, chills, headache, stiff neck, decrease in consciouness,
seizures

57
Q

CSF Analysis

A

Culture for microorganisms
Color
* Clear, colorless (normal)
* Cloudy (increased cell count or microorganisms)
* Yellow (xanthochromia – red cell pigments)

Red Blood cells
* None (normal)
* Grossly bloody (subarachnoid hemorrhage)

White Blood cells
* 0-6/mm3 (normal)
* Increased (infection)

Protein
* Increased (infections, demyelinating disorders, degenrative diseases)

Glucose
* Decreased – infections
* Increased - diabetes

58
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

Increased intracranial pressure
* blockage of the canals that drain CSF from the ventricles
* CSF continues to be produced
* Fluid builds inside brain causing pressure that compresses nervous
tissue and enlarges the ventricles
* Shunt (drainage tube) between ventricles and a body cavity
* Susceptible to infection through shunt

59
Q

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

A

Degeneration of previously normal myelin
* Results in demyelination throughout white matter in CNS
* Plaque lesions replace destroyed myelin
* Inflammatory cells invade affected area
* Nerve conduction is impaired
* Weakness, loss of coordination, visual impairment, speech disturbances
* Genetic and environmental susceptibility factors

60
Q

Cerebrovascular accident
(CVA)

A

Stroke
* Death of brain tissue resulting from disruption of its vascular supply
* Hemorrhagic stroke (due to bleeding from arteries supplying brain tissue)

  • Ischemic stroke (due to blockage of arteries supplying brain tissue)
  • Thrombus (clot in artery)
  • Embolism (detached thrombus, other foreign body – fat globule, gas bubble

motor loss, sensory lossm ataxia, dizzines

61
Q

Dementia

A

Dementia – destruction of neurons in the CNS

62
Q

Alzheimer disease

A

Lesions
* makes the brain smaller - degenerates
* Symptoms – memory loss, short attention spans, disorientation, irritability

63
Q

Creutzfeldt-Jacob (CJD)

A

Caused by prions (pathogenic protein molecules)

64
Q

Examples of neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine, catecholamines
(norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin), endorphins, enkephalins, nitric oxide (NO), and other compounds

65
Q

Nerve coverings

A

a. Endoneurium— surrounds individual fibers within a nerve
b. Perineurium— surrounds a group (fascicle) of nerve fibers
c. Epineurium— surrounds the entire nerve

66
Q

Huntington disease (HD)

A

inherited disorder characterized by
chorea (purposeless movement) progressing to severe dementia

67
Q

HIV

A

(also causes AIDS) can infect neurons and thus cause dementia

68
Q

Electroencephalogram

A

graphic representation of voltage changes in the brain used to evaluate brain activity

69
Q

neurilemma

A

The outer wrapped layer of a Schwann cel

70
Q

Synapse made of three structures

A

synaptic knob, synaptic cleft,
and plasma membrane

71
Q

ions play a role in the generation of nerve impulses

A

K

72
Q

Guillain-Barré syndrome

A

disorder of the peripheral nervous system muscle weakness that begins in the distal limbs.

73
Q

At which vertebral level does the spinal cord end

A

. First lumbar vertebra

74
Q

cervical enlargement

A

thickening in the neck region of the spinal cord.

75
Q

Conscious reflex inhibition

A

occur because the impulse goes to the cerebral cortex.

76
Q

Axon diameter

A

affects the speed of impulse conduction.

77
Q

descending track

A

carries MOTOR information from the brain to the muscles and glands.

78
Q

ascending track

A

SENSORY information to the brain

79
Q

Reflex arcs

A

can cause a motor response without getting information from the brain

80
Q

corpus callosum

A

connects the cerebral hemispheres

81
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

slowly progressive disorder affecting muscle movement and balance

82
Q

MRI

A

detect bleeding in the brain or spinal cord

83
Q

PET

A

diagnose Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases

84
Q

Cerebral angiography

A

detecting aneurysms - ballooning of blood vessel

85
Q

Epilepsy

A

repeated, spontaneous seizures

86
Q

as Lou Gehrig’s disease

A

degenerative disease of the spinal cord and brain
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

87
Q

Which is the correct sequence of the structures by which an impulse passes through a reflex arc

A

Receptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, effectors

88
Q

Which two distinct cell types form nervous tissue

A

Glial cells and neurons

89
Q

multipolar

A

most numerous type of neuron

one axon many dendrites
brain and spinal cord

90
Q

bipolar

A

one axon one dentrite - eyes ears nose

91
Q

unipolar

A

found in ganglia

92
Q

Glial cells

A

smaller than neurons and are capable of mitosis

Pathophysiology (6 decks)

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