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Biological Foundations > Lecture 2 > Flashcards

Lecture 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Your mental experiences depend on what?

A

Activity of a huge number of separate but interconnected cells.

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2
Q

What kinds of cells comprise the human nervous system?

A

Neurons

Glia

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3
Q

The human brain contains approximately how many neurons?

A

86 billion individual neurons

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4
Q

What are the structures of an animal cell?

A 
Membrane
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
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5
Q

What structre seperates the inside of the cell from the outside environment?

A

Membrane

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6
Q

What structure contains the chromosomes?

A

Nucleus

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7
Q

What structure performs metabolic activities and provides energe that the cells require?

A

Mitochondrion

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8
Q

What are the sites at which the cell synthesizes new protein molecules?

A

Ribosomes

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9
Q

What structure is a network of thin tubes that transports newly synthesized proteins to their location?

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

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10
Q

How are neuron cells different from other cells in the body?

A

They have a distinctive shape

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11
Q

What type of neuron has it’s soma in the spinal cord?

A

Motor Neuron

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12
Q

What type of neuron recives excitation from other neurons?

A

Motor Neuron

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13
Q

What type of neuron conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle or gland?

A

Motor Neuron

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14
Q

What type of neuron is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation?

A

Sensory Neuron

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15
Q

What are the components of all neurons?

A

Dendrites
Soma/Cell body
Axon
Presynaptic Terminals

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16
Q

What are branching fibers that have a surface that is lined with synaptic receptors responsible for bringing information into the neuron?

A

Dendrites

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17
Q

What is the function of dedritic spines?

A

Increase surface area of dendrite

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18
Q

The greater the surface area of the dendrite, the more what it receives?

A

Information

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19
Q

Where is the nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes contained?

A

Cell Body/Soma

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20
Q

What is the responsibility of the cell body/soma?

A

Metabolic work in the neuron

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21
Q

The cell body/soma is covered with what?

A

Synapses on it’s surface

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22
Q

What is an axon?

A

Thin fiber of a neuron

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23
Q

What does an axon do?

A

Transmits nerve impulses toward other neurons, organs or muscle.

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24
Q

Axons may have what?

A

Myelin Sheath

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25
Q

What is a myelin sheath?

A

Insulating material around axons

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26
Q

What is the nodes of ranvier?

A

Interruptions in the myelin sheaths

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27
Q

What are presynaptic terminals?

A

End points of an axon that release chemicals to communicate with other neurons

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28
Q

What axon brings information INTO structure?

A

Affferent Axon

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29
Q

What axon carries information AWAY from a structure?

A

Efferent Axon

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30
Q

What are the types of neuorns whose dendrites and axons are completely contained within a single structure?

A

Interneurons or Intrinsic Neurons

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31
Q

Neurons vary in what?

A

Size
Shape
Function

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32
Q

The shape of a neuron determines what?

A

Connection with other neurons and it contribution to the nervous system.

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33
Q

The function of a neurons is related to what?

A

Shape of the neuron

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34
Q

What type of cell helps synchronize the activity of the axon by wrapping around the presynaptic terminal and taking up chemicals that are released by the axon?

A

Astrocytes

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35
Q

Astrocytes are responsible for what?

A

Dilating blood vessels to bring more nutrients into brain areas with heightened activity

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36
Q

What type of cell removes waste material, viruses, and fungi from the brain?

A

Microglia

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37
Q

What else do microglia do?

A

Removes dead, dying or damaged neurons

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38
Q

Where are oligodendrocytes found?

A

Brain

Spinal Cord

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39
Q

Where are schwann cells found?

A

Peripheral nervous system

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40
Q

What is the function of oligodendrocytes and schwann cells?

A

Build myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates certain vertebrae axons

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41
Q

What guides the migration of neurons and the growth of their axons and dendrites during embryonic development

A

Radial Glia

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42
Q

When embryonic development finishes, what do radial glia differentiate into?

A

Neurons and a smaller number differentiate into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.

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43
Q

What is a mechanism that surrounds the brain and blocks most chemicals from entering?

A

Blood brain barrier

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44
Q

What destroys damaged or infected cells throughout the body?

A

Immune System

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45
Q

Because neurons in the brain generally don’t regenerate, it’s vitally important for the BBB to block what?

A

Incoming viruses, bacteria, or harmful material from entering the brain.

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46
Q

What is the protein mediated process that expends energt to pump chemicals from the blood into the brain?

A

Active transport

47
Q

What are brought into the brain via active transport?

A

Glucose
Certain Hormones
Amino Acids
Few Vitamins

48
Q

The BBB is essential to health but can pose difficulty in allowing what to pass the barrier?

A

Chemicals like chemotherapy for brain cancer

49
Q

What type of neurons depends almost entirely on glucose?

A

Vertebrate Neurons

50
Q

What is one of the few nutrients that can pass through the BBB?

A

Sugar

51
Q

Neurons needs a steady supply of what?

A

Oxygen

52
Q

20% of all oxygen consumed by the body is used by what?

A

Brain

53
Q

What vitamin does the body need to use glucose?

A

Thiamine

54
Q

Prolong thiamine deficiency leads to what?

A

Death of neuron-Korsakoff’s Syndrome

55
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome is a result of what?

A

Alcoholism

56
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome is marked by what?

A

Severe memory impairment

57
Q

What is the electrical message that is transmitted down the axon of a neuron?

A

Nerve Impulse

58
Q

The nerve impulse doesn’t travel directly down the axon but does what?

A

It’s regenerated at points along the axon so it’s not weakened.

59
Q

What is the speed of a nerve impulse?

A

Less than 1 meter/second to 100 meters/second

60
Q

A touch on the should reaches the brain more quickly that what?

A

Touch on foot

61
Q

Messages in a neuron develp from disturbances of what?

A

Resting Potential

62
Q

At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical gradient known as what?

A

Polarization

63
Q

What is polarization?

A

Difference in electrical charge inside and outside of the cell

64
Q

The inside of the membrane is what?

A

Slightly negative compared to the outside (-70mV)

65
Q

The resting potential of a neuron refers to what?

A

State of neuron prior to sending nerve impulse.

66
Q

The membrane is what, allowing some chemicals to pass more freely than others?

A

Selectively permeable

67
Q

What passes through channels in the membrane?

A

Sodium (Na+)
Potassium (K+)
Chloride (Cl-)

68
Q

When the membrane is resting what do the channels do?

A

Sodium channels closed (Na+ can’t pass)

Potassium channels partially closed (K+ passes)

69
Q

What is a protein complex that continually pumps 3 sodium ions out of the cells while drawing 2 potassium ions into the cell?

A

Sodium-Potassium Pump

70
Q

The sodium potassium pump helps to do what?

A

Maintain electrical gradient

71
Q

Sodium potassium pump uses what?

A

Active transport (requiring ATP)

72
Q

The electrical gradient and concentration gradient do what?

A

Work to pull sodium ions into the cell

73
Q

The electrical gradient tends to pull what into cells

A

Potassium Ions

74
Q

Potassium ions leak out of the electrical gradient carrying what?

A

Positive charge (K+)

75
Q

The resting potential remains stable until what?

A

Neuron is stimulated

76
Q

What increases the polarization or the difference between the electrical charge of two places

A

Hyperpolarization

77
Q

What decreases the polarization toward zero?

A

Depolarization

78
Q

What is a level above which any stimulation produces a massive depolarization?

A

Threshold of excitation

79
Q

What is a rapid depolarization of the neuron?

A

Action Potential

80
Q

The action potential threshold varies from what

A

One neuron to another but is consistent for each neuron.

81
Q

Stimulation of the neuron past the threshold of excitation triggers what?

A

Nerve impulse or action potential

82
Q

Action potentials back propagate into what?

A

Cell body and dendrites

83
Q

Dendrites become more susceptible to structural changes that’s responsible for what?

A

Learning

84
Q

What is the law that states that the amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it?

A

All or None Law

85
Q

Action potentials are equal in what?

A

Intensity and speed within a given neuron

86
Q

At the start of action potential, what are mostly outside the neuron?

A

Sodium Ions

87
Q

At the start of an action potential what are mostly inside?

A

Potassium ions

88
Q

When the membrane depolarizes, what open?

A

Sodium and potassium channels in the membrane

89
Q

At the peak of the action potential what happens?

A

Sodium channels close

90
Q

Membrane channels permeability depend upon what?

A

Voltage difference across membrane

91
Q

When sodium channels are opened, what comes in?

A

Positively charged sodium ions and nerve impulse occurs.

92
Q

After an action potential occurs, what happens?

A

Sodium channels are closed

93
Q

The neuron is returned to it’s resting state how?

A

Opening potassium channels

94
Q

Potassium ions flow out due to what?

A

Concentration gradient and they take their positive charge with them.

95
Q

The sodium potassium pump later restores what?

A

Original distribution of ions.

96
Q

The process of restoring the sodium-potassium pump to its original distribution takes what?

A

Time

97
Q

An unusally rapid series of action potentials can lead to what?

A

Buildup of sodium within the axon

98
Q

The buildup of sodium in the axon can be what?

A

Toxic to a cell , but only in rare instances such as stroke and after use of certain drugs.

99
Q

Local anestheic drigs block what?

A

Sodium channel and prevent action potentials from occuring (I.e. novacaine)

100
Q

After an action potential, a neuron has what?

A

Refractory period

101
Q

A refractory period occurs when?

A

When the neuron resists the production of another action potential.

102
Q

What is the first part of the period in which the membrane cannot produce an action potential?

A

Absolute refratory period

103
Q

What is the second part in which it takes a stronger than usual stimulus to trigger an action potential?

A

Relative refractory period

104
Q

In a neuron, the action potenatial begins where?

A

Action Hilock (Swelling where axon exits soma)

105
Q

What is the transmission of the action potential down the axon?

A

Propagation of the action potential

106
Q

What is interrupted by short unmyelinated sections of nodes of Ranvier?

A

Myelin Sheath

107
Q

What is an insulating material composed of fats and proteins?

A

Myelin

108
Q

At each node of Ranvier, the action potential is regenerated by what?

A

Chain of positively charged ions pushed along by the previous segment.

109
Q

The jumping of the action potential from node to node does what?

A

Provides rapid conduction of impulses

Conserves energy for the cell

110
Q

What is the disease in which myelin sheath is destroyed and is associated with poor muscle coordination and visual impairments

A

Multiple Sclerosis

111
Q

What has short axons that exchange information with only close neighbors and don’t produce action potentials?

A

Local Neurons

112
Q

When local neurons are stimulated, they produce graded potentials that vary in what?

A

Magnitude and don’t follow the all or none law.

113
Q

Local neurons do what in proportion to the stimulation?

A

Depolarize or hyperpolarize

114
Q

Why are local neurons difficult to study?

A

They are really small.

Biological Foundations (5 decks)

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