Lecture 16 - Pavlov, Behaviourism Flashcards
Animals versus humans:
from comparison, through analogy to equalization
Comparison: Differentia specifica
Aristotle, Avicenna up to Descartes
Analogy: Humans are like animals or machines
de la Mettrie & Hobbes
Equalization: Humans are animals
Darwin, Spencer, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
Russian reflexologists
Ivan Sechenov
1829 - 1905
Vladimir Bechterev
1857 - 1927
Reflex, an S-R link mediated by the central nervous system
Sechenov: Sensory, connective, Bechterev: focus on motor
and motor part of reflex. conditioning, precursor of operant
* . * .
Reflex, an S-R link mediated by the central nervous system
Sechenov: Sensory, connective, Bechterev: focus on motor
and motor part of reflex. conditioning, precursor of operant
* . * .
Ivan Pavlov, M.D. 1849 - 1936
Russian physician and
physiologist
1904 Nobel Prize for
chemical specificity of
saliva and gastric fluids
secreted by a dog exposed to
different food.
1902 - 1936 classic conditioning
* .
Generalization: in animals & humans (sensory similarity) 1st
in humans only (logic abstract similarity) 2nd
Probably not important:
Only 1000 Hz tone was used in the conditioning
Animals: 1st order signal system: within the sensory modality
Humans also 2nd order signal system: within the symbolic meaning
See the generalization in phobias.
CR evoked not
only by the
original CS
1000 Hz tone
but also by
similar tones
Two systems of signal generalization:
The 1st order signals and 2nd order signals
1st-order signals represent sensory cues of orientation.
Animals form generalized classes of objects (trees, wolves)
as categories of sensorily similar objects.
2nd-order signals represent logical cues of orientation.
Humans form generalized classes of objects (furniture)
as abstract classes of logically similar objects,
even though they may differ in sensory perception
(a flash of light or the word ”light”).
Human language is a system of meaningful
symbols
representing these second-order signals
Difficult differentiation
in the experimental neurosis
If a circle is a CS, then salivate (+) cortical excitation
If an oval is a CS, then don’t salivate (-) cortical inhibition
When the differences between the shape of one CS vs.
another have been diminished to a critical point -
the symptoms of the experimental neurosis emerged,
manifesting the “collision” between two cortical
processes: excitation and inhibition.
See later a combination of classical and operant conditioning
Chain of classical conditioning
Tone + Pain → Leg withdrawal
1st o. CR Tone only → Leg withdrawal
Touch + Tone → Leg withdrawal
2nd o. CR Touch only → Leg withdrawal
Light + Touch → Leg withdrawal
3rd o. CR Light only → Leg withdrawal
3rd order reflex is possible because of pain as a US.
When other than pain sensory modalities are applied
the 3rd CR is impossible to produce
Confusing term “the order”
In the signal generalization
1st order signals physically similar stimuli
2nd order signals logically (semantically) similar stimuli
In the chaining of conditioned reflexes:
1st order reflex a reaction to CS 1 linked to US
2nd order reflex a reaction to CS 2 linked to CS 1
3rd order reflex* a reaction to CS 3 linked to CS 2
* with pain as a UCS only
Jerzy Konorski 1903 – 1973
2nd order generalization,
neuroplasticity,
conditioned reflex II
Polish neurophysiologist (studies of
medicine and psychology)
Two year-residency with I. Pavlov.
Letters with B.F. Skinner
1929 Conditioned reflex II
1948 Synaptic neuroplasticity
“Conditioned Reflexes and
Neuronal Organization”,
Cambridge Univ. Press
1957 Visit New York and Stanford lab
1967 ”Integrating Activity of the
Brain”, Chicago Univ. Press
Lie-detection in 3 suspects but only the thief
knows the amount of $750 stolen
See graph
Behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression in rats
Ader, R. & N. Cohen, Science, 1982, 215, p. 1534
Conditioning procedure:
Sweetened water + cyclophosphamide → Nausea &
immunosuppression
neutral S UCS UCR
Sweetened water only → Nausea & immunosuppression
CS CR
Extinction procedure:
Repeated CS (sweetened water only) without UCS the nausea
extinguished faster than immunosuppression, death from banal infections
Repetitive exposition to CS - a conditioned surrogate of the powerful
immunosuppressant (cyclophosphamide)
made the animals defenceless to banal microbes existing in the cage.
The immunocompetence in the rats undergoing the extinction procedure
was significantly lower than in the rats conditioned the same way
but not undergoing the extinction procedure
The sources of human knowledge:
Instincts: The genetically transmitted know-how kits
Foster the biological survival of the species
Social wisdom: Socially transmitted traditions, norms, customs, beliefs
Foster the social survival of culture and civilization
Personal Experiences and Thoughts:
Foster the meaningful existence of a unique individual
Instincts protect the species’ existence
Social wisdoms protect the culture’s existence
Personal experiences protect the individual’s existence
Behaviorism – an ontological reductionism
rom the meaningful whole to the meaningless parts
a flower = a set of colors, cells, atoms
a poem = a set of ink spots on the paper
a symphony = a set of tones and pauses
a kiss = a touch of the lips
a person = a robot-like machine detecting stimuli
and producing some responses
applied by the radical behaviorism
thinking = invisible movements of the larynx & other muscles
feelings = physiological reactions learned based on instincts
For behavorism, such terms as the soul, psyche, mind, selfhood,
personality, consciousness, and unconsciousness are “science-fiction”
Radical behaviorism: John Watson 1878 - 1958
- Student of John Dewey (pragmatism, functionalism) and
Jacques Loeb (tropism as a by-product of a plant’s structure). - Doctorate with the dissertation titled “Animal Education:
Development of the White Rat.” - An assistant professor at the University of Chicago
- Research on the consecutive elimination of senses in rats to determine
the minimal sensory input required to navigate a maze - Teaching position at Johns Hopkins University
- Invited lecture at Columbia University in 1913,
titled “Psychology as the Behaviorist Sees It” - a radical manifesto.
Watson’s manifesto
* Rejection of mental processes, psyche, mind, the self and
consciousness as “belonging to science-fiction”
* Rejection of introspection
* The brain - a “mystery box” - left for physiologists
* Psychology = behaviorism
* Focus on the S - R link and ignore what is in-between
* Types of human behaviors/responses:
- overt learned e.g. talking
- covert learned e.g. heart rate increase stimulated by CS
- overt inborn e.g. breathing
- covert inborn e.g. saliva secretion stimulated by UCS
A general definition of the instinct
Instinct - an inborn predisposition to
- attend to a certain class of objects (cognitive component)
- experience an emotional excitement (emotional component)
- act (behavioral component)
John Watson: on instincts
Inborn reflexes such as breathing, sucking, and eliminating
are like tropisms in plants; they are by-products of the
structure.
A car’s ability to move results from its engine, gears, and
wheels. Playing Chopin is a by-product of the connections
between the brain, ears, and fingers.
Instincts, particularly important in animals and babies, are a
foundation for learning new habits.
Emotional habits, like worrying, hostility, or love, are
developed based on the instincts of fear, rage, or attraction.
Affair with Ms. R. Rayner;
divorced from his 1st wife and
fired from Johns Hopkins University
Working for business companies
and publishing extensively on behaviorism
Watson’s contributions to behaviour therapy:
B.F. Skinner: token therapy: reinforcement/rewarding
the modified habits
Mary C. Jones: counter-conditioning: undoing the phobias
Joseph Wolpe: systematic desensitization: linking relax to
emotional stimuli.
W. Masters & V. Johnson have applied it in the treatment of
sexual dysfunctions: premature ejaculation & vaginismus
Aversive therapy: for pedophilia & other sexual deviations
(linking the unwanted R with a painful S)
Edward Lee THORNDIKE 1874 - 1949
From animal studies 1898 to child psychology 1903
Harvard and Columbia Univ. N.Y.
1898: “Animal Intelligence…”
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1903: “Educational Psychology”
Thorndike Box: To reach for food outside the box, the hungry animal must perform a
specific action to open the box. (a prototype of operant conditioning)
Law of Effect: “Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular
situation
are more likely to occur again.”
Trial and Error Learning: Making blind (random) attempts until a successful
outcome is achieved. No insight.
Connectionism: “Learning is the process of connecting stimuli (S) with responses
(R).” This is a random, blind association that does not require insight. “The mind is
man’s connection system.” The more connections formed in the brain, the more
intelligent behavior one exhibits. Types of Intelligence: abstract, social, and
practical.
Educational Psychology. Transfer of Capacity: Abilities in one domain can manifest
in similar domains, such as math, physics, and chemistry.
The ability to play the piano transfers itself to playing the organ or harpsichord, too.
In the beginning, all reactions are chaotic and random.
If one of them (press lever) is rewarded (satisfying effect), this reaction
will be reproduced more likely than initially.
BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER 1904 - 1990
He was born in Pennsylvania to an intellectually stimulating family: his
father was a lawyer, and his mother studied the arts and literature.
* Hobbies: kites, magic boxes and later…. the
“pigeon kamikaze” devices and … Skinnerian box
* Also, literary talents (dreamed of being a writer)
* Travelled to Europe
* Harvard: Ph.D. in psychology
and post-doc. fellowship in physiology
* Prof. at Minnesota Univ. ”The Behavior of Organism”
and utopist novel “Walden Two” 1948
* Prof. at Harvard Univ. “Verbal Behavior” 1957
“Beyond Freedom and Dignity” 1971
“About Behaviorism” 1974, “Enjoy Old Age” 1983
Learning is a link between
the past and the future”
“Psychology should focus on the study of a
person who has acquired a unique
repertoire of behaviors”.
“A person is a point at which genetic
endowment and personal history come
together in a joint effect. As such, she/he
remains…unique”. B.F. Skinner
Classical conditioning:
learning a new stimulus as a meaningful signal.
Operant instrumental conditioning:
learning a new reaction as a meaningful response.
Thorndike’s Satisfying effect = Skinner’s Reinforcement
a rewarding stimulus which increases the probability
that the response will reappear in the future.
Constant versus intermittent
schedule of reinforcement
* Which one makes the training easier?
* Which one makes the reflex
more durable?
What kind of reward is more efficient and
durable in child behavior?
A pen moves horizontally while a rat presses a lever. Each press results
in a vertical pen movement, which stays at that level. The next lever
press raises the pen one level higher. Cumulative responses recorded
Reinforcement (reinforcer) versus punishment
The reinforcement presents a change of
stimulation that increases the probability of
the reaction to reappear in the future.
The punishment presents a change of
stimulation that decreases the probability of
the reaction to reappear in the future.
Positive = presenting a stimulus
Negative = removing a stimulus
Shaping and the biofeedback
Shaping: reinforcing consecutive improvements in a
person’s performance, e.g. skating, piano playing.
Autonomous reactions can be shaped if electronically detected,
translated
Biofeedback: a shaping applied to physiological read-
outs (skin temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, renal activity)
translated into scaled signals like tones or colours.
Achieving a low tone or a green color is linked to the
desired physiological relaxation (reinforced =
wanted).
Biofeedback in the treatment of PVC (premature
ventricular contractions), arrhythmias, migraine
Skinnerian conditioning combined with
Pavlovian conditioning
* 1st phase: operant conditioning: a dog learns to lift the
paw to avoid electric shocks.
After 2 months without any reinforcement,
the trained CR seemed to have been forgotten.
* 2nd phase: difficult differentiation between a square and an oval,
leading to experimental neurosis. On top of typical
symptoms of experimental neurosis (shaking, barking,
uncontrollable urinating), the dog presented a spontaneous
lifting of its paw.
a CR that had seemingly been forgotten from the 1st
phase
when it helped to prevent a painful electric shock.
Primary versus secondary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers have a rewarding value inherently built
into the structure of organisms, representing a
fundamental set of instinctual needs, such as hunger,
thirst, and sex. The need-gratifying properties of
certain objects can be recognized intuitively from the
moment of birth.
Secondary reinforcers derive their rewarding value from
learned associations with primary reinforcers
Examples of secondary reinforcers include a mother’s
smile, verbal approval like “bravo,” praise, diplomas,
titles, social or professional status, and money.
Mathematic-deductive behaviorism
Clark L. Hull 1884 - 1952
Professor at Yale University
Poliomyelitis (morbus Heine-Medini)
“Hypnosis & Suggestibility” 1933.
“Principles of Behavior” 1943.
nstead of Pavlovian cortical mechanisms or Woodworth’s motivational state of
organism - intervening between S and R
a set of mathematically formulated variables
SER = sHR x V x K x D
E= reaction potential (probability that R would happen)
H= habit strength (# of S - R reinforcements)
V= intensity of a stimulus
K= incentive value of a stimulus
D= drive (tension evoked by the need deprivation)
primary drive mechanisms - to satisfy the inborn needs
secondary drive mechanisms - to satisfy the acquired needs
Recent studies on brain centers for drive mechanisms (hunger, sex, sleep)
the nuclei in the subcortical regions (hypothalamus and the limbic system)
