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Forensic > Lecture 1: Theories of Crime > Flashcards

Lecture 1: Theories of Crime Flashcards

questions to consider: - How can we use these theories to prevent or reduce crime or prevent recidivism? - What are the ethical concerns when conducting research in and developing theories of crime? - What are the cost/benefit analysis of the prevention programmes based on these theories?

1
Q

how are genes a theory of crime

A

determine factors about our body/ brain: use twin studies (heritable component to crime)

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2
Q

name a heritable component of crime

A

genes

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3
Q

who said that ‘Behavioural genetics suggests criminality is heritable ‘

A

Popma & Raine, 2006

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4
Q

how heritable is criminality (genes) and who said this

A

40-50% heritable (Moffitt, 2005)

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5
Q

name the cons of heritability as a theory of crime

A

o Variability in the expressed phenotype
o Maths behind behavioural genetics highly flaws
 Environmentally identical twins are treated more similarly than no (one male/female?)

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6
Q

what has genetic studies found a link between genes and what …

A

Genetic studies reveal associations between specific genes and antisocial behaviour (Caspi et al., 2002)

Monoamine neurotransmitter genes atual gene + antisocial behaviour (emotional regulation – neuroplamine/ dopamine) associated with arousal and emotional regulation

Processing serotonin and catecholamine

Can this theory preduct all behaviours (eg burglary AND sexual assult) peter will be talking mostly about violent crimes as has the most evidence

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7
Q

name a limitation of genetic studies of a theory of crime

A

unknown whether genes can explain all theories of crime (eg burgulary and sexual assult)

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8
Q

what is vitamin and mineral deficiencies linked to? (nutrition)

A
  • Vitamin and mineral deficiencies during infancy are related to later aggression (Werbach, 1992)
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9
Q

who said that vitamin and mineral deficiencies are linked to aggression (nutrition)

A

Werbach, 1992)

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10
Q

what are the limitations of Werbachs predictions

A

o Poor diet also related to poor status

o Werbach doesn’t measure criminality – just aggression (not everyone who is aggressive is a criminal)

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11
Q

what is poor nutrition linked to?

A
  • Poor nutrition (a lack of omega-3 essential fatty acids) during pregnancy related to criminality (Hallahan et al., 2007)
    o Single biggest predictor of criminality
    o 1st trimester mostly
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12
Q

describe hallahan et al 2007 study

A
  • Poor nutrition (a lack of omega-3 essential fatty acids) during pregnancy related to criminality (Hallahan et al., 2007)
    o Single biggest predictor of criminality
    o 1st trimester mostly
    o Large study – N= 14,500
    o What is omega 3 doing? Helps build frontal lobes in brain
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13
Q

what does Liu et al 2003/2007 say about nutrition theory

A
  • These relationships hold when all other variables are controlled (Liu et al., 2003, 2007)

(relationships = poor nutrition and criminality)

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14
Q

Name the key neuro psychology areas of researcg

A 
intelligence 
brain injury 
temperament 
abnormal brains 
physiology of a criminal 
neurobiology
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15
Q

what did Raine 2000 say about abnormal brains

A
  • 11% reduction in prefrontal cortex size in antisocial personality disorder (Raine et al., 2000)
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16
Q

what did brower and price 2001 say about abnormal brains

A

o Orbitiofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices (Brower & Price, 2001)

Regions smaller in those with AS PD  seen in a structural MRI

Studies done often on those who have been convicted already of crime

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17
Q

how does the amygdala explain the abnormal brains theory of neuropsychology

A 
-	Deficits in amygdala-hippocampus links
Fear conditioning (Gao et al., 2010)

Infants afed 3= level of FC= neg correlates with antisocial behaviour at age 8
Functional MRI
Amy= fear, Hip= memory

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18
Q

what does amygdala stand for

A

o Amy= fear, Hip= memory

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19
Q

what happened in GAO et al 2010 (neuropsych, abnormal brain)

A

o Fear conditioning (Gao et al., 2010)
 Infants afed 3= level of FC= neg correlates with antisocial behaviour at age 8
 Functional MRI

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20
Q

what did (Turkstra et al., 2003) say about brain injury and the link to crime

A
  • Frontal lobe damage can cause criminal behaviour (Turkstra et al., 2003)
    o Specifically the orbitofrontal cortex
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21
Q

what did Huw Williams et al., 2010 and tonks et al 2010 say about brain injury and the link to crime

A

o Self-reported head injuries are a risk factor for criminality (Huw Williams et al., 2010)
o Especially early in life (Tonks et al., 2009)

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22
Q

how can brain injury not be linked to crime

A
  • If the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is also damaged, aggression may be reduced
  • But what causes Brain injury (espesh during childhood)
    o Lack of supervision, clumsiness , social factors
  • If damage to brain in multitude of areas (inc. in PFC) can reduce aggression
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23
Q

what happened to Phineas gage (brain injury)

A
  • EG – Phineas Gage-> brain lesion

o Damage to PFC  aggression (more likely to be a criminal)

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24
Q

how can the physiology of a criminal link to criminality

A
  • Antisocial people show a low resting heart beat (Raine et al., 1997)
    o High heart rate is protective (Brennan et al., 1997)
     When control for levels of fitness
  • Criminals show reduced skin conductance responses (Lorber, 2004)
    o Predictive of future criminality
    o But only in higher-class children
  • Slow-wave EEG (theta and delta) abnormalities (Scarpa & Raine, 1997)
  • Raine = @ age 15 Can predict who will commit a crime  but only in wealthier people
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25
Q

what did raine et al 1997 say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)

A
  • Antisocial people show a low resting heart beat (Raine et al., 1997)
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26
Q

what did Brennan 1997 say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)

A

o High heart rate is protective (Brennan et al., 1997)

 When control for levels of fitness

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27
Q

what did Lorber 2004 say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)

A
  • Criminals show reduced skin conductance responses (Lorber, 2004)
    o Predictive of future criminality
    o But only in higher-class children
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28
Q

what did Scarpa + Rraine 1997say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)

A
  • Slow-wave EEG (theta and delta) abnormalities (Scarpa & Raine, 1997)

Raine = @ age 15 Can predict who will commit a crime  but only in wealthier people

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29
Q

what did Cima et al 2008 say about neurobiology (neuropsych)

A
  • Reduced cortisol is associated with violent adults and children (Cima et al., 2008)
    o Low cortisol relates to reduced sensitivity to stressors
    o Cortisol much more likely to be related to criminality (lower leveks)
    o C= stress reaction
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30
Q

what did (Scerbo & Kolko, 1994) say about neurobiology (neuropsych)

A
  • Increased testosterone is associated with violent crime (Scerbo & Kolko, 1994)
    o But this might be due to testosterone’s relation to social dominance
    o Might not be related with crime but with violence (social dominance)
    o Testosterone not the best prediction (can be aggressive without a criminal)
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31
Q

why may testosterone levels not link to criminality (neurobiology, neuropsych)

A

might be due to testosterone’s relation to social dominance
o Might not be related with crime but with violence (social dominance)
o Testosterone not the best prediction (can be aggressive without a criminal)

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32
Q

what factors of temparment are said to link to crime (neuropsych)

A
  • Extroversion + neuroticism + psychoticism = criminal
    o Extroverts tend to have lower cortisol levels have to use aggression etc to be able to reach same states of arousal as introverts
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33
Q

how do extroverts link to crime (temparment, neuropsych)

A

o Extroverts tend to have lower cortisol levels have to use aggression etc to be able to reach same states of arousal as introverts

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34
Q

what did Caspi, 2000; Stevenson & Goodman, 2001 say about temparment and criminality (neuropsych)

A
  • Chronically ill-tempered infants are associated with later delinquency (Caspi, 2000; Stevenson & Goodman, 2001)
    o “The child is father of the man”
     The child predicts what the man will be like
  • HOWEVER all predictors of this are the same as ADHD (which is associated with criminality but differently)
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35
Q

how is ADHD linked to the temparment theory of neuropsych

A

all predictors of this are the same as ADHD (which is associated with criminality but differently)

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36
Q

what did (White et al., 1989) say about criminaliy and intelligence

A

Low IQ predicts criminality

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37
Q

what is a predictor of IQ an crime

A

o Strongest link among lower class boys

May cause school failure or inability to comprehend complex concepts

Best replicated neuropsychological predictor of criminality

38
Q

what are the weaknesses of IQ as a predictor of crime(intelligence, neuropsych)

A

o However uses criminals who have been caught may be a predictor of how likely you are to be caught or of the criminal justice system
o Best nueuropsych predictor
o In prisons IQ <90 more than in normal population
o Not alone other risl factors eg school failure, school refusal, inability to comprehend complex things (eg if have ADHD)

39
Q

what are the cognitive elements which link to crime

A

executive functions and empathy

40
Q

what does Hancock et al., 2010) say about executive function and criminality (cognition)

A
  • Executive dysfunction is found in criminal populations (Hancock et al., 2010)

Not always in psychopathy

Works on criminals but not psychopaths

Crim pop around .62 SD lower results than normal pop

41
Q

what criminal population does the executive dysfunction theory not apply to

A

psychopaths

white collar criminals

42
Q

what did raine et al 2012 discover about executive functions in criminals (cognition)

A

White collar criminals (committing a fraud type crime – higher social economic status) had significantly better executive functioning (Raine et al., 2012)

43
Q

what did joiffe and farrington (2006) find about empathy theory of cognition

A
  • Empathy is negatively related to bullying (Joliffe & Farrington, 2006), often seen as a precursor to aggressive and criminal behaviour
    o Cognitive empathy is strongly negatively related to delinquency
     About cognition rather than emotion how your behaviour has consequences on other people
    o Affective (emotional) empathy is weakly negatively related to delinquency
44
Q

what is cognitive empathy linked to

A

o Cognitive empathy is strongly negatively related to delinquency

About cognition rather than emotion how your behaviour has consequences on other people

45
Q

how is the frontal lobe development linked to criminality

A

Frontal lobes develop latest not fully developed until the age of around 25 risk taking behaviour more likely in people under age of 25 (critical age)(50% of crimes under 25) good model to train people at exec func (doesn’t work acc unkown why)

Model when putting together eg frontal lobe damage poor exec functioning (ability to reason /monitor own behaviour / focus/ regulate emotions) if weaker = delinquency in kids/ adults

46
Q

how is frontal lobe development linked to executive functioning

A

Model when putting together eg frontal lobe damage poor exec functioning (ability to reason /monitor own behaviour / focus/ regulate emotions) if weaker = delinquency in kids/ adults

47
Q

what are the two factors of age and criminality

A

adolescent limited
life course persistant

with slight variations this general relationship between age and crime obtains among males and females for most types of crime during recent historical periods and in numerous western nations

48
Q

what is adolescent limited

A
  • common , brief period, lose motivation (realise limits/ job/travel), move , marriage
49
Q

what is life course persistant

A

start earlier, finish later due to possible neuropsychological deficits and criminal unsupportive environment

50
Q

what study says about age and criminality

A

farrington

51
Q

what does/ doesn’t farrington say about age and criminality

A

Biggest study example= Farrington  in adolescents  doesn’t say anything about exec func but fits with model of age

52
Q

what are the main family factors to do with crime

A 
family based interventions 
family size
social learning theory 
criminal parents 
parental conflict 
parenting 
family risk factors
53
Q

describe the background between family risk factors

A
  • Factors frequently intertwined therefore can’t always target risk factors in isolation.
    o Not just proximal and dis they interact
  • Need to consider whether factor is casually related to child outcome.
    o What is the cause  is it risk factors or consequences of something else
54
Q

what are the two types of family risk factors

A

distal

proximal

55
Q

define distal risk factors

A

historical

56
Q

define proximal risk factors

A

right now

57
Q

what are the historical risk factors called

A

distal

58
Q

what are the risk factors right now called

A

proximal

59
Q

name and describe the distal risk factors

A

Family criminality-  espesh fathers to sons, mothers to daughters

  • Social adversity- lowers ability to cope
  • Family violence- eg witnessing domestic violence, in particular men
60
Q

what are the proximal risk factors

A

Parental psychopathology- impulsivity/adhd/antisocial PD both proximal and dis as can have bouts of depression for example

Parenting - powerful risk factor

  • Physical abuse- happens to the child
61
Q

what types of parenting creates criminal children

A

authoritarian
cold
rejecting
Stricter parents eg smacking child

62
Q

name a protective factor of parenting and criminality

A

o Parental warmth canc be a protective factor against other risk factors

63
Q

what does Hoghughi & Speight, 1998 say about parenting and criminality

A
  • Poor parenting supervision strongest predictor of later criminality
64
Q

what is a limitation about the parenting approach to criminality

A

o When don’t take into account neuropsychopathy

65
Q

what does Fergusson & Horwood, 1998 say about parental conflict and criminality

A
  • Divorce and remarriage tends to predict criminality

Parental conflict not divorce (Fergusson & Horwood, 1998)
- Conflict when the child is under five
- Not direct cause of divorce  something else
 Eg see pic conflict
 Marital conflict and dvorce divorce can be a protective factor

- Divorce higher only in conflict , not divorce as a cause

66
Q

what is a protective factor of parental conflict

A
  • Affectionate mothers protect from divorce
67
Q

what did farrington et al 2009 say about criminal parents

A

-Criminal parents tend to have criminal children (Farrington et al., 2009)

o 63% of boys with convicted parent were convicted

o Doesn’t explain why

o In farrington 6% of families responsible for over 50% of crimes

Other factors  neruopsych

68
Q

what does family size predict

A

Large family size predicts criminality

69
Q

what is a way to reduce criminality in large families in Ireland and who created the study

A

o Legalised abortion reduces crime in families (Donohue & Levitt, 2001)
 Irish study

70
Q

how does large family size effect later born children and what is the model behind it

A

o Delinquency greater in later-born children

o Model = family have limited resources (economic, emotionally etc) cant distribute
o If havex4 children over a 10 year period larger the crime rates chance by 2

71
Q

name a family intervention to reduce family criminality

A
  • Health visitors to parents prevent criminality
    o Cost/benefit £1 = saving £3 (Aos et al., 2001)
  • Family training reduces criminality
  • These factors introduced since 2004 will produce benefits from 2020 (not being seen currently)
  • Example:surestart
72
Q

what is the cost and benefit of family based invention

A

o Cost/benefit £1 = saving £3 (Aos et al., 2001)

73
Q

what type of theory is societal theory of criminality

A

macrolevel theory

74
Q

what are societal theories of criminality

A

peer and social influences

socio-economic status

75
Q

what about socio-economic

status

A
  • Low SES of the family when the child was 8-10 years predicts criminality
76
Q

what about socio-economic status doenst predict criminality

A
  • Wage does not predict criminality
    o Because between ages 16-25 in school / uni- no money (lower levels of crime at uni)OR at work
    o Un- and under-employment does predict criminality
77
Q

what are the indirect effects of socio-economic status and criminality

A
  • Lack of a collective efficacy in a community is related to crime
    o Indirect effects and only present when protective factors don’t exist
78
Q

describe the peer influences factor of crime (society

A

Can be learnt specific behave. But wont cause you to commit a crime
Media? Violent films?- no effect on causing violence. But specific behave might be

79
Q

what is deistance

A

why people stop committing a crime

80
Q

Name the protective factors in the respectability package

A 
o	Hobbies (Horney et al., 1995)
o	A good job
o	A good relationship
	
- Reduced interaction with - deviant peer groups
- New friends and extended family
- Social control
- Routines
81
Q

what are the cognitive shifts (four processes) which predict desistance

A

- Openness to change
- Self-driven prosocial experiences
- Adherence to prosocial identity
- Negative perception of the criminal lifestyle

82
Q

what does lebel et al 2008 say about protective factors

A

cognitive shifts and the respectability package interact with social tranges

83
Q

how many participants in Farrington 2004 Cambridge study

A

411 boys

84
Q

when did Farrington 2004 Cambridge study begin

A

1953

85
Q

what ages were studied in Farrington 2004 Cambridge study

A

8-48 years

86
Q

what did Farrington 2004 Cambridge study find

A
  • Indiv – low IQ, impulsive, risk taking, aggressive
  • Family – poor supervision, abuse, criminal family
  • Socio-economic – low income, large family
    o X3 most preductive of crime above
  • School – high delinquency school
  • Neighbourhood – deprived, high crime
  • Peer – delinquent, rejection
    o X3 above= more situational , distal/proximal
    o Specific with weaker links
  • 41% in farr = convicted of criminal behaviour
  • Said no single risk factor that causes crime
  • Chronic= age 14, more aggressie committing earlier and more serious crimes, more likely to drink/gamble/smoke
87
Q

what did Moffitt 1993 distinguish between

A

o Life-course persistent
o Adolescence limited offenders

general resumption that they differ from each other

88
Q

how can life course persistant and adolescent limited groups be differentiated

A
  • Both groups can be differentiated in terms of their criminal careers and distinct aetiologies
89
Q

what did farrington 2001 suggest about life course persistant and adolescent limited groups

A
  • Farrington (2001) reported that the chronic/persistent offenders (6% cohort) had an early age of first conviction and accounted for half of all recorded convictions.
90
Q

hwo does moffitt 1993 define adolescence limited criminals

A

o Delay delinquency until adolescence
o Less serious forms of delinquent behaviour
o More likely to desist from criminal behaviour
o Motivated by gap between biological maturity and social maturity.

91
Q

how does moffitt 1993 describe life-course persistant criminasl

A

o Early history of antisocial behaviour
o More serious and violent delinquent behaviour
o Persist into adulthood
o Neuropsychological deficits interacts with family and social factors

92
Q

why are theories of crime so important

A
  • Implications for offender profiling – look for individuals with certain backgrounds – e.g. likely early delinquency
  • Implications for treatment – environmental changes may not help if biological causation; reduce association to criminal peers if social perspective
  • Understanding of multidisciplinary working – social workers (social) may have different views on causation to psychiatrists (biological/medical)

Forensic (9 decks)

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