Lecture 1: Theories of Crime Flashcards
questions to consider: - How can we use these theories to prevent or reduce crime or prevent recidivism? - What are the ethical concerns when conducting research in and developing theories of crime? - What are the cost/benefit analysis of the prevention programmes based on these theories?
how are genes a theory of crime
determine factors about our body/ brain: use twin studies (heritable component to crime)
name a heritable component of crime
genes
who said that ‘Behavioural genetics suggests criminality is heritable ‘
Popma & Raine, 2006
how heritable is criminality (genes) and who said this
40-50% heritable (Moffitt, 2005)
name the cons of heritability as a theory of crime
o Variability in the expressed phenotype
o Maths behind behavioural genetics highly flaws
Environmentally identical twins are treated more similarly than no (one male/female?)
what has genetic studies found a link between genes and what …
Genetic studies reveal associations between specific genes and antisocial behaviour (Caspi et al., 2002)
Monoamine neurotransmitter genes atual gene + antisocial behaviour (emotional regulation – neuroplamine/ dopamine) associated with arousal and emotional regulation
Processing serotonin and catecholamine
Can this theory preduct all behaviours (eg burglary AND sexual assult) peter will be talking mostly about violent crimes as has the most evidence
name a limitation of genetic studies of a theory of crime
unknown whether genes can explain all theories of crime (eg burgulary and sexual assult)
what is vitamin and mineral deficiencies linked to? (nutrition)
- Vitamin and mineral deficiencies during infancy are related to later aggression (Werbach, 1992)
who said that vitamin and mineral deficiencies are linked to aggression (nutrition)
Werbach, 1992)
what are the limitations of Werbachs predictions
o Poor diet also related to poor status
o Werbach doesn’t measure criminality – just aggression (not everyone who is aggressive is a criminal)
what is poor nutrition linked to?
- Poor nutrition (a lack of omega-3 essential fatty acids) during pregnancy related to criminality (Hallahan et al., 2007)
o Single biggest predictor of criminality
o 1st trimester mostly
describe hallahan et al 2007 study
- Poor nutrition (a lack of omega-3 essential fatty acids) during pregnancy related to criminality (Hallahan et al., 2007)
o Single biggest predictor of criminality
o 1st trimester mostly
o Large study – N= 14,500
o What is omega 3 doing? Helps build frontal lobes in brain
what does Liu et al 2003/2007 say about nutrition theory
- These relationships hold when all other variables are controlled (Liu et al., 2003, 2007)
(relationships = poor nutrition and criminality)
Name the key neuro psychology areas of researcg
intelligence brain injury temperament abnormal brains physiology of a criminal neurobiology
what did Raine 2000 say about abnormal brains
- 11% reduction in prefrontal cortex size in antisocial personality disorder (Raine et al., 2000)
what did brower and price 2001 say about abnormal brains
o Orbitiofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices (Brower & Price, 2001)
Regions smaller in those with AS PD seen in a structural MRI
Studies done often on those who have been convicted already of crime
how does the amygdala explain the abnormal brains theory of neuropsychology
- Deficits in amygdala-hippocampus links Fear conditioning (Gao et al., 2010)
Infants afed 3= level of FC= neg correlates with antisocial behaviour at age 8
Functional MRI
Amy= fear, Hip= memory
what does amygdala stand for
o Amy= fear, Hip= memory
what happened in GAO et al 2010 (neuropsych, abnormal brain)
o Fear conditioning (Gao et al., 2010)
Infants afed 3= level of FC= neg correlates with antisocial behaviour at age 8
Functional MRI
what did (Turkstra et al., 2003) say about brain injury and the link to crime
- Frontal lobe damage can cause criminal behaviour (Turkstra et al., 2003)
o Specifically the orbitofrontal cortex
what did Huw Williams et al., 2010 and tonks et al 2010 say about brain injury and the link to crime
o Self-reported head injuries are a risk factor for criminality (Huw Williams et al., 2010)
o Especially early in life (Tonks et al., 2009)
how can brain injury not be linked to crime
- If the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is also damaged, aggression may be reduced
- But what causes Brain injury (espesh during childhood)
o Lack of supervision, clumsiness , social factors - If damage to brain in multitude of areas (inc. in PFC) can reduce aggression
what happened to Phineas gage (brain injury)
- EG – Phineas Gage-> brain lesion
o Damage to PFC aggression (more likely to be a criminal)
how can the physiology of a criminal link to criminality
- Antisocial people show a low resting heart beat (Raine et al., 1997)
o High heart rate is protective (Brennan et al., 1997)
When control for levels of fitness - Criminals show reduced skin conductance responses (Lorber, 2004)
o Predictive of future criminality
o But only in higher-class children - Slow-wave EEG (theta and delta) abnormalities (Scarpa & Raine, 1997)
- Raine = @ age 15 Can predict who will commit a crime but only in wealthier people
what did raine et al 1997 say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)
- Antisocial people show a low resting heart beat (Raine et al., 1997)
what did Brennan 1997 say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)
o High heart rate is protective (Brennan et al., 1997)
When control for levels of fitness
what did Lorber 2004 say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)
- Criminals show reduced skin conductance responses (Lorber, 2004)
o Predictive of future criminality
o But only in higher-class children
what did Scarpa + Rraine 1997say about physiology of a criminal (neuropsychology)
- Slow-wave EEG (theta and delta) abnormalities (Scarpa & Raine, 1997)
Raine = @ age 15 Can predict who will commit a crime but only in wealthier people
what did Cima et al 2008 say about neurobiology (neuropsych)
- Reduced cortisol is associated with violent adults and children (Cima et al., 2008)
o Low cortisol relates to reduced sensitivity to stressors
o Cortisol much more likely to be related to criminality (lower leveks)
o C= stress reaction
what did (Scerbo & Kolko, 1994) say about neurobiology (neuropsych)
- Increased testosterone is associated with violent crime (Scerbo & Kolko, 1994)
o But this might be due to testosterone’s relation to social dominance
o Might not be related with crime but with violence (social dominance)
o Testosterone not the best prediction (can be aggressive without a criminal)
why may testosterone levels not link to criminality (neurobiology, neuropsych)
might be due to testosterone’s relation to social dominance
o Might not be related with crime but with violence (social dominance)
o Testosterone not the best prediction (can be aggressive without a criminal)
what factors of temparment are said to link to crime (neuropsych)
- Extroversion + neuroticism + psychoticism = criminal
o Extroverts tend to have lower cortisol levels have to use aggression etc to be able to reach same states of arousal as introverts
how do extroverts link to crime (temparment, neuropsych)
o Extroverts tend to have lower cortisol levels have to use aggression etc to be able to reach same states of arousal as introverts
what did Caspi, 2000; Stevenson & Goodman, 2001 say about temparment and criminality (neuropsych)
- Chronically ill-tempered infants are associated with later delinquency (Caspi, 2000; Stevenson & Goodman, 2001)
o “The child is father of the man”
The child predicts what the man will be like - HOWEVER all predictors of this are the same as ADHD (which is associated with criminality but differently)
how is ADHD linked to the temparment theory of neuropsych
all predictors of this are the same as ADHD (which is associated with criminality but differently)
what did (White et al., 1989) say about criminaliy and intelligence
Low IQ predicts criminality
what is a predictor of IQ an crime
o Strongest link among lower class boys
May cause school failure or inability to comprehend complex concepts
Best replicated neuropsychological predictor of criminality
what are the weaknesses of IQ as a predictor of crime(intelligence, neuropsych)
o However uses criminals who have been caught may be a predictor of how likely you are to be caught or of the criminal justice system
o Best nueuropsych predictor
o In prisons IQ <90 more than in normal population
o Not alone other risl factors eg school failure, school refusal, inability to comprehend complex things (eg if have ADHD)
what are the cognitive elements which link to crime
executive functions and empathy
what does Hancock et al., 2010) say about executive function and criminality (cognition)
- Executive dysfunction is found in criminal populations (Hancock et al., 2010)
Not always in psychopathy
Works on criminals but not psychopaths
Crim pop around .62 SD lower results than normal pop
what criminal population does the executive dysfunction theory not apply to
psychopaths
white collar criminals
what did raine et al 2012 discover about executive functions in criminals (cognition)
White collar criminals (committing a fraud type crime – higher social economic status) had significantly better executive functioning (Raine et al., 2012)
what did joiffe and farrington (2006) find about empathy theory of cognition
- Empathy is negatively related to bullying (Joliffe & Farrington, 2006), often seen as a precursor to aggressive and criminal behaviour
o Cognitive empathy is strongly negatively related to delinquency
About cognition rather than emotion how your behaviour has consequences on other people
o Affective (emotional) empathy is weakly negatively related to delinquency
what is cognitive empathy linked to
o Cognitive empathy is strongly negatively related to delinquency
About cognition rather than emotion how your behaviour has consequences on other people
how is the frontal lobe development linked to criminality
Frontal lobes develop latest not fully developed until the age of around 25 risk taking behaviour more likely in people under age of 25 (critical age)(50% of crimes under 25) good model to train people at exec func (doesn’t work acc unkown why)
Model when putting together eg frontal lobe damage poor exec functioning (ability to reason /monitor own behaviour / focus/ regulate emotions) if weaker = delinquency in kids/ adults
how is frontal lobe development linked to executive functioning
Model when putting together eg frontal lobe damage poor exec functioning (ability to reason /monitor own behaviour / focus/ regulate emotions) if weaker = delinquency in kids/ adults
what are the two factors of age and criminality
adolescent limited
life course persistant
with slight variations this general relationship between age and crime obtains among males and females for most types of crime during recent historical periods and in numerous western nations
what is adolescent limited
- common , brief period, lose motivation (realise limits/ job/travel), move , marriage
what is life course persistant
start earlier, finish later due to possible neuropsychological deficits and criminal unsupportive environment
what study says about age and criminality
farrington
what does/ doesn’t farrington say about age and criminality
Biggest study example= Farrington in adolescents doesn’t say anything about exec func but fits with model of age
what are the main family factors to do with crime
family based interventions family size social learning theory criminal parents parental conflict parenting family risk factors
describe the background between family risk factors
- Factors frequently intertwined therefore can’t always target risk factors in isolation.
o Not just proximal and dis they interact - Need to consider whether factor is casually related to child outcome.
o What is the cause is it risk factors or consequences of something else
what are the two types of family risk factors
distal
proximal
define distal risk factors
historical
define proximal risk factors
right now
what are the historical risk factors called
distal
what are the risk factors right now called
proximal
name and describe the distal risk factors
Family criminality- espesh fathers to sons, mothers to daughters
- Social adversity- lowers ability to cope
- Family violence- eg witnessing domestic violence, in particular men
what are the proximal risk factors
Parental psychopathology- impulsivity/adhd/antisocial PD both proximal and dis as can have bouts of depression for example
Parenting - powerful risk factor
- Physical abuse- happens to the child
what types of parenting creates criminal children
authoritarian
cold
rejecting
Stricter parents eg smacking child
name a protective factor of parenting and criminality
o Parental warmth canc be a protective factor against other risk factors
what does Hoghughi & Speight, 1998 say about parenting and criminality
- Poor parenting supervision strongest predictor of later criminality
what is a limitation about the parenting approach to criminality
o When don’t take into account neuropsychopathy
what does Fergusson & Horwood, 1998 say about parental conflict and criminality
- Divorce and remarriage tends to predict criminality
Parental conflict not divorce (Fergusson & Horwood, 1998)
- Conflict when the child is under five
- Not direct cause of divorce something else
Eg see pic conflict
Marital conflict and dvorce divorce can be a protective factor
- Divorce higher only in conflict , not divorce as a cause
what is a protective factor of parental conflict
- Affectionate mothers protect from divorce
what did farrington et al 2009 say about criminal parents
-Criminal parents tend to have criminal children (Farrington et al., 2009)
o 63% of boys with convicted parent were convicted
o Doesn’t explain why
o In farrington 6% of families responsible for over 50% of crimes
Other factors neruopsych
what does family size predict
Large family size predicts criminality
what is a way to reduce criminality in large families in Ireland and who created the study
o Legalised abortion reduces crime in families (Donohue & Levitt, 2001)
Irish study
how does large family size effect later born children and what is the model behind it
o Delinquency greater in later-born children
o Model = family have limited resources (economic, emotionally etc) cant distribute
o If havex4 children over a 10 year period larger the crime rates chance by 2
name a family intervention to reduce family criminality
- Health visitors to parents prevent criminality
o Cost/benefit £1 = saving £3 (Aos et al., 2001) - Family training reduces criminality
- These factors introduced since 2004 will produce benefits from 2020 (not being seen currently)
- Example:surestart
what is the cost and benefit of family based invention
o Cost/benefit £1 = saving £3 (Aos et al., 2001)
what type of theory is societal theory of criminality
macrolevel theory
what are societal theories of criminality
peer and social influences
socio-economic status
what about socio-economic
status
- Low SES of the family when the child was 8-10 years predicts criminality
what about socio-economic status doenst predict criminality
- Wage does not predict criminality
o Because between ages 16-25 in school / uni- no money (lower levels of crime at uni)OR at work
o Un- and under-employment does predict criminality
what are the indirect effects of socio-economic status and criminality
- Lack of a collective efficacy in a community is related to crime
o Indirect effects and only present when protective factors don’t exist
describe the peer influences factor of crime (society
Can be learnt specific behave. But wont cause you to commit a crime
Media? Violent films?- no effect on causing violence. But specific behave might be
what is deistance
why people stop committing a crime
Name the protective factors in the respectability package
o Hobbies (Horney et al., 1995) o A good job o A good relationship - Reduced interaction with - deviant peer groups - New friends and extended family - Social control - Routines
what are the cognitive shifts (four processes) which predict desistance
- Openness to change
- Self-driven prosocial experiences
- Adherence to prosocial identity
- Negative perception of the criminal lifestyle
what does lebel et al 2008 say about protective factors
cognitive shifts and the respectability package interact with social tranges
how many participants in Farrington 2004 Cambridge study
411 boys
when did Farrington 2004 Cambridge study begin
1953
what ages were studied in Farrington 2004 Cambridge study
8-48 years
what did Farrington 2004 Cambridge study find
- Indiv – low IQ, impulsive, risk taking, aggressive
- Family – poor supervision, abuse, criminal family
- Socio-economic – low income, large family
o X3 most preductive of crime above - School – high delinquency school
- Neighbourhood – deprived, high crime
- Peer – delinquent, rejection
o X3 above= more situational , distal/proximal
o Specific with weaker links - 41% in farr = convicted of criminal behaviour
- Said no single risk factor that causes crime
- Chronic= age 14, more aggressie committing earlier and more serious crimes, more likely to drink/gamble/smoke
what did Moffitt 1993 distinguish between
o Life-course persistent
o Adolescence limited offenders
general resumption that they differ from each other
how can life course persistant and adolescent limited groups be differentiated
- Both groups can be differentiated in terms of their criminal careers and distinct aetiologies
what did farrington 2001 suggest about life course persistant and adolescent limited groups
- Farrington (2001) reported that the chronic/persistent offenders (6% cohort) had an early age of first conviction and accounted for half of all recorded convictions.
hwo does moffitt 1993 define adolescence limited criminals
o Delay delinquency until adolescence
o Less serious forms of delinquent behaviour
o More likely to desist from criminal behaviour
o Motivated by gap between biological maturity and social maturity.
how does moffitt 1993 describe life-course persistant criminasl
o Early history of antisocial behaviour
o More serious and violent delinquent behaviour
o Persist into adulthood
o Neuropsychological deficits interacts with family and social factors
why are theories of crime so important
- Implications for offender profiling – look for individuals with certain backgrounds – e.g. likely early delinquency
- Implications for treatment – environmental changes may not help if biological causation; reduce association to criminal peers if social perspective
- Understanding of multidisciplinary working – social workers (social) may have different views on causation to psychiatrists (biological/medical)
