Lect 4 CHO Metabolism Flashcards
What is the only fuel RBCs can use?
Glucose (no mitochondria)
What energy forms does the Brain use?
Glucose (non-starvation)
Switch to Ketones (starvation)
Where is GLUT1?
Ubiquitous, but high in RBC and brain
High affinity Km 1 mM
Where is GLUT2?
Main transporter in Liver
Low Affinity Km 10 mM
Where is GLUT3?
Main transporter in neurons
High Affinity Km 1 mM
Where is GLUT4?
Skeletal muscle, heart, adipose tissue
Regulated: Insulin Dependent
How is GLUT4 brought to the plasma membrane?
GLUT4 sequestered in vesicles in cells
Insulin signaling –> fusion of vesicles with PM
Enables GLUT4 induced glucose uptake
Glycolysis is _ process
Anaerobic (no O2)
Where does Glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm
What is Glycolysis’s Net Yield
2 ATP
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
Describe Glycolysis Phase 1 (Investment Phase)
-
Phosphorylation of Glucose –> G6P (Regulatory Step)
-
Hexokinase (all cells) & Glucokinase (liver, pancreatic B-cells)
- ATP –> ADP
-
Hexokinase (all cells) & Glucokinase (liver, pancreatic B-cells)
- Isomerization of G6P to F6P
-
Phosphorylation of F6P –> Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate (F1,6-BP) (RATE LIMITING STEP)
-
Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)
- ATP –> ADP
-
Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

How is Hexokinase Regulated?
What is its affinity?
Inhibited by G6P
High Affinity (functional even at low [glucose])
How is Glucokinase Regulated?
What is its affinity?
Activated: Glucose, F1P, Insulin
Inhibited: Glucagon, F6P
Low affinity for glucose
Most active when high [glucose]
How is PFK-1 Regulated?
Activate: AMP, F2,6-BP (formed by PFK-2)
Inhibit: ATP, Citrate

How is PFK-1 Hormonally Regulated with Insulin?
- Fed State:
- High insulin/low glucagon
- Activate protein phosphatases, Dephosphorylate PFK-2/FBPase-2 (Kinase activity) produces F2,6BP –> activating PFK-1
How is PFK-1 Hormonally Regulated with Glucagon?
- Fasting State
- High glucagon/low insulin
- Induces high [cAMP] –> activate PKA, phosphorylates PFK-2/FBPase-2 (phosphorylation activity) –> Reduces PFK-1 activity
Describe Glycolysis Phase 2 (Splitting)
- Cleavage of F1,6-BP –> Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP) + Glyceraldehyde 3P (G3P)
- Aldolase A
- Isomerization of DHAP –> G3P (Now have 2 G3P)
- Triose Phosphate Isomerase
Describe Glycolysis Phase 3 (Payoff)
-
G3P (2) –> 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2)
-
Glyceraldehyde 3P Dehydrogenase
- Reduces NAD+ (2) –> NADH (2)
-
Glyceraldehyde 3P Dehydrogenase
- 1,3-BPG (2) –> 3-Phosphoglycerate (3PG) (2)
-
Phosphoglycerate Kinase
- ADP (2) –> ATP (2)
-
Phosphoglycerate Kinase
- 3PG –> 2PG –> PEP
-
PEP (2) –> Pyruvate (2)
-
Pyruvate Kinase
- ADP (2) –> ATP (2)
-
Pyruvate Kinase

Describe Pyruvate Kinase Regulation
- Activated: Insulin, F1,6-BP
- Inhibit: Alanine, ATP, Glucagon
Describe PK Hormonal Regulation
- High Insulin: Stimulate protein phosphotase –> Dephosphorylation of PK –> Activate
- High Glucagon: cAMP activates PKA –> Phosphorylation of PK –> Inhibition
3 Regulation Checkpoints of Glycolysis
Hexokinase/Glucokinase (Glu –> G6P)
PFK-1 (F6P –> F16BP)
Pyruvate Kinase (PEP –> Pyruvate)
What are the other fates of G6P?
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway: G6P –> Ribose and NADPH Synthesis
- Converted to G1P: Gylcogen synthesis, Gal metabolism
Defective Glycolytic Enzymes = _
What cells most affected?
Most common enzyme defective?
Ineffective glycolysis
Cells w/o Mitochondria impacted most (RBC)
Pyruvate Kinase
Most Glycolytic Enzyme Defects cause this condition
Hemolytic Anemias
Failure of glycolysis results in _ leading to disruption of ion gradients.
This causes what to happen and what condition?
ATP Deficiency –> Reduced cell viability
RBC destruction causes hemolytic anemia
Why is the brain particularly dependent on glucose?
What happens during starvation?
Glucose only fuel molecule to cross blood brain barrier (BBB)
Starvation: obtain glucose from liver via gluconeogenesis
Also utilize ketone bodies (extreme starvation/ketogenic diet)
Diabetes is characterized by _
Differences between Type I and Type II
Fasting glucose levels in prediabetic and diabetic
- Characterized by hyperglycemia
- Type I: insulin deficiency due to loss of pancreatic B-cells
- Type II: insulin resistance progresses to loss of B-cell function
- Prediabetic = 100-125
- Diabetic = > 125
How much Glucose does the body need? the brain?
How much is availabel in body fluids? glycogen stores?
Needs 160 g glucose/day
Brain requires 120 g
Glucose in body fluids 20 g
Glucose available from glycogen 190 g
Gluconeogenesis Location, Function, Precursors
Location: Liver, Kidney, SI
Function: Pyruvate –> Glucose
Precursors: Lactate, AAs, Glycerol
What is Pyruvate Carboxylase (PC)
-
Mitochondrial Enzyme that catalyzes 1st Step:
- Pyruvate carboxylated to form OAA
Pyruvate Carboxylase cofactor?
Biotin
Pyruvate Carboxylase Regulation
Activated: Acetyl CoA and Cortisol
Inhibited: ADP
How is Pyruvate transported out of Mitochondria
- OAA reduced –> Malate via Malate Dehydrogenase (NADH dependent)
- Transported to cytoplasm via Malate shuttle
- Re-oxidized to OAA via cytosolic malate dehyrogenase (NADH dependent)
What is the function of Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK)
OAA –> PEP
Activated: Cortisol, Glucagon, Thyroxine
Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphatase
F1,6-BP –> F6P
Rate Limiting Step
Activated: Cortisol and Citrate
Inhibited: AMP and F26BP
What does Glucose 6 Phosphatase do?
G6P –> Glucose
Activated by Cortisol
Glucose 6 Phosphatase Location and Structure
Lumen of ER in Liver, Kidneys, SI, and Pancreas
Catalytic Unit; G6P/Pi antiporter; glucose transporter (GLUT7)

What is the Function of Cori Cycle?
Lactate from anaerobic glycolysis in RBC/exercising muscle –> Liver (gluconeogenesis)
F1,6-Bisphosphatase Deficiency Consequences
Hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, ketosis, apnea, hyperventilation
What is Von Gierke Disease (GSD1a)?
Deficiency in glucose 6 phosphatase
Fructose Uptake Transporter?
GLUT5 (Facilitated Diffusion)
Galactose/Glucose Uptake Transporter?
SGLT1 (Secondary Active Transport w/ Na)
Fanconi Bickel Syndrome Cause and Defects
Mutation in GLUT2 transporter (liver, pancreatic B cell, enterocytes, renal tubular cells)
Unable to uptake Glu, Fru, Gal
Conversion of Glucose to Fructose via Polyol Pathway
Glucose –> Sorbitol (Aldose reductase) –> Fructose (Sorbitol dehydrogenase)
Cells lacking sorbitol dehydrogenase (kidney, retina) accumulate sorbitol (water influx/swelling) and manifest as retinopathy, cataracts
High Fructose Corn Syrup (HCFS) and Obesity
Bypasses PFK-1, more efficiently converted to Fat
How is Galactose Metabolism
Galactose –> Galactose 1P (galactokinase) –> Glucose 1P (Glucose 1P Uridyltransferase/GALT) <– RLS
Galactosemia is caused by what?
- Deficiency in GALT
- Deficiency in Galactokinase
PPP Location and Products
Occurs in cytosol
Oxidation of G6P –> Ribulose 5P
Reduction of NADP+ –> NADPH (2)
Irreversible Oxidative Step (Catabolism)
G6P –> 6PLactone (G6P Dehydrogenase) –> 6PGluconate –> Ribulose 5P
Produces 2 NADPH
G6PDH Inhibited by NADPH
PPP Rate Limiting Enzyme
G6P Dehydrogenase
NADPH regenerates _
Glutathione (antioxidant, detoxifies H2O2)
PPP - Nonoxidative phase is series of _ reactions.
These end products are shunted to glycolytic, gluconeogenic, and nucleotide synthesis pathways.
Reversible
Ribose 5P, G3P, F6P
Where there is a high demand of ribose 5P (nucleotide syn), _ phase is favored to produce _
When there is high demand for NADPH, _ phase products channeled into gluconeogenesis for re-entry into PPP
Oxidative - Ribulose 5P
Non - oxidative
Glucose molecules are linked together via _ bonds in glycogen with branch points formed via _ bonds
a-1,4 glycosidic bonds
a-1,6 glycosidic bonds
Glycogen stored in _ which contain not only glycogen but also _
Granules
Enzymes needed for glycogen metabolism
Trapping and activation of glucose in glycogenesis in 3 steps
Occurs in liver and muscle
-
Glucose –> G6P
- HK/GK
-
G6P –> G1P
- Phosphoglucomutase
-
G1P –> UDP Glucose (Active Form)
- UDP Glucose pyrophosphorylase
Elongation of glycogen primer utilizes this rate limiting enzyme
Glycogen synthase catalyzes transfer of glucose from UDP-glucose to non-reducing end of glycogen
Branching of glycogen chains occurs via this enzyme
Why is branching important?
Glucosyl (4:6) transferase
Increases solubility of glycogen and increases number of non-reducing terminal ends
Glycogenolysis starts with chain shortening phase to release G1P via this rate limiting enzyme
What cofactor is used?
Process continues until enzyme gets within _ residues of a-1,6 linkage
Glycogen phosphorylase
Pyridoxal phosphate (Vit B6)
4 residues
This enzyme transfers block of 3 of 4 remaining glucose to non reducing end.
Debranching enzyme
In the liver, G1P is converted to G6P and then to glucose by this enzyme that is not present in muscles
Phosphatase
GP and GS are regulated by phosphorylation.
GS is active when _
GP is active when _
GS: active dephosphorylated/inactive phosphorylated
GP: active phosphorylated/inactive dephosphorylated
Reciprocal regulation of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis

Insulin regulation mechanism has 4 key proteins involved and what is the net result?
- GLUT4, Protein Kinase B, Protein Phosphatase 1, Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3
- Net Result Glycogen Synthesis

Regulation of Glycogenolysis has 5 key enzymes and second messengers
- G protein, Adenylate cyclase (AC) and cAMP, PKA, PP1, Phosphorylase Kinase
- Net result is glycogen breakdown
GSD 0
GSD II/Pompe Disease
GSD III/Cori Disease
GSD IV/Anderson Disease
GSD V/McArdle Disease
GSD VI/Hers Disease
- Deficiency in GS
- Chain elongation
- Deficiency in acid maltase (a-glucosidase)
- Lysosomal glycogenolysis
- Deficiency in a-1,6 glucosidase (Debranching Enzyme)
- Glycogen molecules with large number of short branches
- Deficiency in glucosyl (4:6) transferase (Branching Enzyme)
- Long chain glycogen with fewer branches
- Deficiency in muscle glycogen phosphorylase
- Cannot supply muscles with glucose
- Deficiency in Liver glycogen phosphorylase
- Glycogen accumulates in liver, hypoglycemia