lec 9: learning

Question 1

define learning

Answer 1

a lasting change in behaviour or mental processes as a result of experiences.

Question 2

name 2 simple forms of learning.

Answer 2

1. habituation - learning to ignore repeated stimulation (so we only focus on important ones)
2. mere exposure effect - learned preference for stimuli that we previously experienced (explains liking to people or songs we have seen/heard a few times)

Question 3

define behavioural learning.

Answer 3

forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses, like classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Question 3

what is the form of behavioural learning that accounts for our likes and dislikes?

Answer 3

classical conditioning

Question 4

define classical conditioning.

Answer 4

a form of behavioural learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.

Question 5

define conditioned response (CR).

Answer 5

in classical conditioning, CR is a response elicited by a previously neurtal stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 6

define unconditioned response (UCR).

Answer 6

in classical conditioning, the response elicited by an unconditional stimulus without prior learning.

Question 7

define conditioned stimulus (CS).

Answer 7

in classical conditioning, CS is the previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response.

Question 8

define unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Answer 8

in classical conditioning, UCS elicits an unconditioned response.

Question 9

define acquisition.

Answer 9

the initial learning stage in classical conditioning, where the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response.

Question 10

define extinction in classical conditioning.

Answer 10

the weakening of conditioned response due to the absence of unconditioned stimulus.

Question 11

describe strength of CR (conditioned response) wrt acquisition, extinction and spontaneous recovery.

Answer 11

1. during acquisition where both UCS (unconditioned stimulus) and NS (previously neutral stimulus) are present, CR increases rapidly and to the peak. NS becomes CS.
2. during extinction where UCS is removed and only CS is present, CR decreases to 0.
3. after a period of time where CR=0, lower intensity of CR may occasionally reappear in the event that the CS is present, and this is called spontaneous recovery.

Question 12

what is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 12

the extension of conditioned response to stimuli similar to conditioned stimulus.

Question 13

what is stimulus discrimination?

Answer 13

conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus and not to stimuli that are similar.

Question 14

define operant conditioning.

Answer 14

a form of behavioural learning where the probability of the response is changed by its consequences (rewards/punishment).

Question 15

state Thorndike’s law of effect.

Answer 15

the idea that responses leading to desirable consequences will be learned by an organism.

Question 16

why does Skinner preder the word “reinforce” rather than “reward”?

Answer 16

rewards suggest pleasure on the individual’s part, which is not observable. reinforcements, however, means that the behaviour strengthens, which is observable.

Question 17

what is positive reinforcement?

Answer 17

addition of stimulus after a response so as to increase/strengthen that behaviour.

Question 18

what is negative reinforcement?

Answer 18

removal of unpleasant stimulus after a response, so as to increase/strenghten that behaviour.

Question 19

what is an operant chamber?

Answer 19

aka skinner’s box, it delivers reinforcements/punishments according to the animal’s behaviour. allows experimenter to control all the stimuli in the animal’s environment.

Question 20

what are reinforcement contingencies?

Answer 20

relationships between a response and changes in the stimulation following it.

Question 21

what is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 21

a reinforcement schedule where every desirable response is reinforced.

Question 22

define shaping in learning.

Answer 22

an operant learning technique where a new behaviour is produed by reinforcing responses similar to the desired response. leads to better and better approximation to the desired response.

Question 23

what are 2 drawbacks of continuous reinforcemtn?

Answer 23

1. failure to reinforce a correct behaviours could lead receiver to think that the response is incorrect
2. as receiver become satisfied with the reinforcer (candy/treat), it becomess less motivated too

Question 24

define intermittent reinforcement?

Answer 24

reinforcement of some, not all correct responses. aka partial reinforcement.

Question 25

define extinction in operant conditioning.

Answer 25

weakening or cessation of desired behaviour once reinforcement is stopped.

Question 26

what is the difference between extinction in classical conditioning and that in operant conditioning?

Answer 26

extinction in classical conditioning occurs gradually due to removal of unconditioned stimulus, while that of operant conditioning occurs immediately due to removal of reinforcement.

Question 27

why is intermittent reinforcement better than continuous reinforcement?

Answer 27

intermittent reinforcement allows receiver to continue the desired behaviour even after reinforcement has been ceased.

Question 28

what are the schedules of reinforcement?

Answer 28

1. ratio schedule (reinforced after a certain no. of desired responses)
   - fixed ratio (reinforcement after every fixed no. of desired responses)
   - variable ratio (no. of responses required for reinforcement varies from trial to trial)
2. interval schedule (reinforced after a certain amount of time has lapsed from previous reinforcement)
   - fixed interval (reinforced after a fixed amount of time, eg. salary every month)
   - variable interval (reinforced after varying time periods between each trial)

Question 29

what are primary and secondary reinforcers?

Answer 29

1. primary reinforcers
   - stimuli that satisfy biological needs and desires
   - food, sex, air
2. secondary reinforcers
   - stimuli that is associated to primary reinforcers
   - money, grades, praise

Question 30

define instinctive drift.

Answer 30

tendency of animal’s innate responses interfering with learned responses.

Question 31

what is a token economy?

Answer 31

based on operant conditioning, individuals in an economy are rewarded with tokens which act as secondary reinforcers that can be redeemed for rewards and privileges.

Question 32

state the premack principle.

Answer 32

premack principle states that more preferred activities can be used to reinforce less preferred activities.

Question 33

what are the types of punishment in learning?

Answer 33

punishment is the aversive consequence after a response, which weakens the unwanted behaviour.

1. positive punishment - addition of aversive stimulus (getting slapped after cursing, reduces cursing behaviour)
2. negative punishment - removal of attractive stimulus (deducting pocket money after bullying, reduces bullying behaviour)

Question 34

state 5 reasons why punishment is not an effective form of learning?

Answer 34

1. punishment has to be meted out consistently.
2. temptations make possibility of punishment seem worth the price.
3. punishment triggers escape and aggression.
4. induces fear and apprehension, inhibiting ability to learn new or desirable responses. (learned helplessness - passive acceptance of punitive fate, causes depression)
5. applied unequally, violating our standards of fair and equal treatment

Question 35

effective punishment should meet the below conditions:

Answer 35

1. clearly target the undesirable behaviour (don’t attack them personally)
2. be consistent (meted out everytime the undesirable response occurs)
3. be immediate (no “you will get it from your father later”)
4. intensity and duration must fit the crime
5. not give mixed messages (you cannot hit others, but i can hit you)
6. most effective: negative punishment (take privileges away to stop undesirable behavior)

Question 36

state 3 differences between classical and operant conditioning. (there are 5)

Answer 36

1. In classical conditioning, behaviour is controlled by stimuli given before the response, while in operant conditioning, behaviour is controlled by stimuli given after the response.
2. In classical conditioning, no reward or punishment is involved, but operant conditioning involves rewards (reinforcement) and punishment.
3. In classical conditioning, new stimulus (CS) produces old behaviour (UCR and CR), while in operant conditioning, new stimulus produces new behaviour.
4. in classical conditioning, extinction occurs via withholding of UCS, while in operant conditioning, extinction occurs via withholding of reinforcement.
5. in classicla conditioning, learner is passive, behaviour is involuntary and elicited by the stimulus. in operant conditioning, learner is active, behaviour is voluntary and produced by the learner.

Question 37

define insight psychology.

Answer 37

it is a form of cognitive learning involving problem solving via sudden reorganisation of perceptions.

Question 38

define cognitive map.

Answer 38

mental representation of a physical space

Question 39

define observational learning, aka social learning.

Answer 39

a form of cognitive learning whereby new responses are acquired after watching others’ behaviours and the consequences of their behaviours.

Question 40

what is long-term potentiation?

Answer 40

a biological process involving physical changes in the brain that strenthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells that is believed to be the neural basis of learning.

eg:

1. learn location of various objects - cells in visual and parietal cortex fire rapidly.
2. as learning progresses, connections among different cortical regions become stronger while firing patterns becomes less intense.
3. in operant conditioning, the brain’s reward circuitry comes into play in parts of the frontal cortex and limbic system, rich in dopamine receptors.
4. limbic system helps us remember strong emotions like fear associated with classical conditioning.

Question 41

state the biological basis of extinction in learning.

Answer 41

extinction occurs when neurotransmitters like glutamate and norepinephrine block memories.

Question 42

what kinds of learning depend on simple circuits and what kinds depend on mroe complex ones?

Answer 42

1. simple - classical and operant conditioning
2. complex - cognitive learning (insight learning, observable learning and concept formation)

Question 43

what are some differences between behavioural and cognitive learning?

Answer 43

1. behavioural learning focuses on observable events while cognitive learning are inferences made about mental processes that are not directly observable.
2. behavioural learning consists of associations among stimuli and responses while cognitive learning involves information processing where the learner seeks useful information from the stumuli.
3. main forms of behavioural learning are habituation, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning while that of cognitive learning are insight learning, observational learning and cognitive maps.
4. behavioural learning involves big names like Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson and Skinner, while cognitive learning involves big names like Kohler, Tolman and Bandura.

Question 44

what kind of neurons aid us in imitation, and thus observational learning?

Answer 44

mirror neurons in our brains are finely tuned to help us mirror other people’s sense of being rewarded or punished by activating the same circuits in our own brains.