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intro to psychology > lec 12: motivation > Flashcards

lec 12: motivation Flashcards

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1
Q

define motivation.

A

the process by which activities are started, directed and continued so that physical and psychological wants and needs are met

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2
Q

state 2 extrinsic motivators.

A
  1. money
  2. food
  3. awards
  4. sex
  5. praise
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3
Q

extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation

A
  • extrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity to achieve external consequences, like a reward
  • intrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity to achieve an internal psychological need and for our own sake
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4
Q

what is “need for achievement” under McClelland’s theory?

A

(n Ach) - the mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel in something or reach a goal

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5
Q

what is McClelland’s theory of psychological needs?

A
  1. need for achievement - desire to excel in something/reach a goal
  2. need for power - desire to have control/influence over others
  3. need for affiliation - desire for friendly social interactions and relationships with others
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6
Q

how does reward affect motivation adversely?

A
  • overjustification is a process whereby extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation in an activity (a child received extra pocket money for playing videogames)
  • takes the fun out of doing things that are initially done due to intrinsic motivations like pleasure
  • applies only when the quality of the job is disregarded
  • Lepper’s study - children getting certs for drawings vs those that did not receive any reward
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7
Q

describe 3 major effects of rewards on motivation.

A
  1. rewards motivate people to do things they would otherwise not do (study, housework)
  2. rewards add to intrinsic motivation, when they are given based on performance
  3. rewards hinders intrinsic motivation, when they are given regardless of performance/quality
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8
Q

why do psychologists find the concept of motivation useful?

A
  1. connects observable behaviour to internal states
  2. accounts for variability in behaviours
  3. explains perseverence despite adversity
  4. relates biology to behaviour
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9
Q

what replaced Instinct Theory and why?

A
  • fixed-action patterns replaced instinct theory
  • instinct theory states that certain behaviours are completely determined by innate factors
  • “instint” became a label instead of explanation for behaviour, thus “fixed-action pattern” preferred
  • fixed-action pattern refers to genetically based behaviours (not learned) seen across species that can be set off by certain stimuli
  • both these terms do not account for “learned behaviours”
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10
Q

define biological drive and state the drive theory.

A
  • a state that motivates an organism to satisfy a biological need like thirst
  • drive theory explains the motivation to satisfy a biological need, and returns the organism to a state of homeostasis
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11
Q

define homeostasis

A

the body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition, especially wrt nutients, water and temperature.

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12
Q

what is a need and what is a drive?

A

need: requirement of some material essential for survival

drive: in the presence of a need, drive is the psychological tension and physical arousal that motivates an organism to fulfill that need and reduce the tension

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13
Q

state the drive reduction theory.

A

the drive reduction theory assumes that an organism’s behaviour arises from its internal drives to satisfy a need, to reduce psychological tension and physical arousal.

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14
Q

state 2 primary drives.

A
  1. hunger
  2. thirst
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15
Q

state 2 secondary/acquired drives.

A
  1. money
  2. good grades
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16
Q

what is the arousal thoery?

A

states that people have an optimal level of tension they aim to maintain by increasing/decreasing stimulation

  • increase arousal when arousal falls below optimum and vice versa
  • optimal levels vary across individuals
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17
Q

what is the r/s between arousal and performance?

A

Yerkes-Dodson law, aka, “inverted-U” function of arousal

  1. as slope increases on graph - performance and arousal increase together (increasing alertness, interest and positive emotion)
  2. at peak - optimal lvl of arousal = best performance
  3. as slope decreases on graph - performance decreases as arousal increases (agitation and anxiety impair performance)
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18
Q

what is self-transcendence?

A
  • higher order need that Masow incorporated into his Hierarchy of Needs
  • aesthetic and cognitive needs - appreciation of beauty, exploration
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19
Q

what does Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs fail to explain in motivation?

A
  1. why people take thier own lives
  2. why we choose to do things that override safety or basic needs (eg. parachute, missing a meal for a good movie)
  3. ignores sex drive
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20
Q

describe the evolutionary revision of Maslow’s hierarchy. (what are changes in priorities determined by)

A

priorities change and are determined by:

  1. functional factors - adaptive functions in terms of survival and reproduction (mating and parenting)
  2. proximal factors - proximal stimulus in environment may shift motivational priorities to a new level (esteem/respect)
  3. developmental factors - development change may shift motivational priorities to a new level (esteem/respect)

*everything on the pyramid stays the same, except that self-actualising become “mating and parenting”

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21
Q

describe the brain mechanisms controlling hunger and eating

A

hypothalamus is the nerve center for hunger, with one region activating it and another dampening it.

  • brain stem works with hypothalamus to monitor blood sugar, nutrients in the gut and fat stores, using a suite of receptors and chemical messengers.
22
Q

define set point.

A
  • refers to tendency of body to maintain a certain level of body fat and weight

*specialised fat cells fals below a certain level, triggers eating

*the chemical leptin signals when the set point has been reached; animals lacking leptin continue to eat after set point has been reached and they are not hungry

*the chemical ghrelin signals hunger

23
Q

name some biological hunger mechanisms (biological factors affecting hunger).

A
  1. brain mechanisms - hypothalamus is the nerve center for hunger, with one side activating it and another side dampening it. brain stem works with hypothalamus to monitor blood sugar, nutrients in gut and fat stores using receptors and chemical messengers.
  2. set point (homeostatic) mechanisms - body wants to maintain a certain level of fat and weight. when specialised fat cells fall below certain level, triggers hunger. the chemical leptin signals fullness while chemical ghrelin signals hunger.
  3. stomach pressure - feelings of fullness or emptiness detected in stomach. these messages are sent to brain where they combine with info about blood nutients and status of body’s fat cells.
  4. reward system preferences - we prefer sweet and fatty foods due to the high calorie content as preferred by our ancestors, as opposed to bitter and sour foods.
  5. exercise - extreme exercise stimulates hunger while moderate exercise surpresses it
24
Q

what are some environmental and social factors of hunger?

A

initiates eating:
1. preference for certain diets
2. emotion-induced eating
3. eating to prevent hunger later
4. culture/habitual influence
5. eating stimulated by presence of food
6. social eating
7. conditioned cues (watching tv)

prevents eating:
1. portion size
2. foods associated with disgust
3. religious reasons
4. emotion-inhibiting eating
5. cultural pressures towards slimness and dieting

25
Q

anorexia nervosa vs bulimia nervosa

A
  1. anorexia nervosa
    - persistent loss of appetite that endangers one’s health, and it stems from emotional and psychological reasons
    - less than 85% of desired body weight and still worries about being fat (distorted body image)
  2. bulimia nervosa
    - binge eating, followed by compensatory behaviours to control weight (eg. vomiting)
26
Q

what is the difference between bulimia nervosa and binge eating?

A

bulimia nervosa is binge eating followed by compensatory behaviours, usually to control weight, like purging, while binge eating is just lack of control in eating associated with distress and there is no avoidant and compensatory behaviours.

27
Q

how are sex and hunger similar and how are they different?

A

similarity:
- sex and hunger stems from our roots in survival. sex - reproduction, hunger - survive

differences:
- hunger - individual survival, sex - species survival
- hunger causes death, lack of sex does not

28
Q

what are the 4 stages of the sexual response cycle?

A
  1. arousal (excitement)
  2. plateau (max. arousal)
  3. orgasm (release of intense and pleasurable cumulative sexual tension)
  4. resolution (returns to preexcitement state)
29
Q

describe the multiple systems approach to understanding hunger.

A

biological factors:
- set point
- brain mechanisms
- reward preference system
- exercise and metabolism
- stomach pressure

social/culture/environment factors:
- emotion induced/inhibitory
- portion size
- dieting/slimness
- religious/culture/habitual influences
- conditioned cues

*describe some from bio and some from social

30
Q

instead of will power, what terms are preferred?

A

self-control
impulse-control

31
Q

what is the r/s between motivation and emotion?

A

emotions create motivations

motivations intensify emotions

32
Q

define emotion.

A
  • feeling aspect of consciousness
  • negative or positive
  • triggered by external stimili and internal thoughts
  • leads to action
  • innate/learned

*emotion is the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, triggered by external stimuli as well as internal thoughts, is either postive or negative and leads to actions. it can either be learned or innate.

33
Q

4 elements of emotions

A
  1. physiological arousal - neural, hormonal, visceral, muscular changes
  2. cognitive interpretation/appraisal - attaching meaning to emotional experience by drawing on perceptual and memory processes
  3. subjective feelings - interpreting internal affective states by giving them a label
  4. behavioural expression - expressing emotion through facial expressions, gestures, etc
34
Q

what is cogntive interpretation/appraisal?

A

an element of emotion, cognitive interpretation/appraisal is the attachment of meaning to emotional experience via perceptual or memory processes.

35
Q

which element of emotion allows us to interpret our internal affective states by giving them a label?

A

subjective feelings

36
Q

what are the 2 distinct emotion-processing brain pathways?

A
  1. low road - fast response pathway
    - from visual thalamus striaight to amygdala
    - unconscious
    - scans incoming stimuli and respond quickly to escape danger (built-in sensitivity)
    - explains irrational fear
  2. high road - slow response pathway
    - from visual thalamus to visual coretex, then amygdala
    - conscious perception of situation
    - involves processing and cognitive appraisal (associating meaning with emotional experiences via perceptual or memory processes)

*these 2 distinct emotion-processing brain pathways explain why we react quickly (flinch) when faced with our fear/phobia (insects) even when we know that fear is irrational.

37
Q

what is the cerebral cortex’s role in emotion?

A
  • interprets events and associate them with feelings and memories
  • these emotional memories/feelings then help us make decisions, though not always right, and can be affected by intense emotions
38
Q

what is lateralisation of emotion?

A

the 2 brain hemispheres process different emotions.

right - negative (anger, sadness)

left - positive (happiness, excitement)

39
Q

what is the part of the brain called, where the conscious emotion-processing pathway meets the limbic system (emotion meets reason)?

A

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC)

  • located on the floor of frontal lobes, right behind eyes
  • extensive connections with amygdala and hippocampus
  • external stimulation + body’s gut reaction = emotional memory
40
Q

(a) name 3 structures in the subcortical areas of the brain that is involved in emotions.

(b) name 2 structures in the cortical areas of the brain that is involved in emotions.

A

(a)

  1. hypothalamus - activate sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
  2. thalamus - sensory relay centre
  3. hippocampus - integration of emotional experience with other perceptual processes

(b)

  1. frontal lobes - interpretation/appraisal of emotion (connect emotional experiences with meaning via memory and perceptual processes)
  2. anterior cingulate cortex - control/regulate emotions
41
Q

how many emotions do we have?

A

more than 500 emotion terms in english

only 6-8 basic emotions

the rest are blended primary emotions

42
Q

what are display rules?

A

learned ways of controlling displays of emotions in social settings

43
Q

who are sensation seekers?

A

people with higher biological needs for higher level of stimulation compared to normal people.

44
Q

what are some neurotransmitters responsible for our emotions?

A
  1. serotonin - depression
  2. epinephrine (adrenalin) - fear
  3. norepinephrine - anger
45
Q

what is the common sense theory of emotion?

A

stimulus -> emotion -> physiological reaction (ANS) -> behavioural reaction

46
Q

what is the facial feedback effect?

A

facial feedback effect is the fact that manipulating facial expressions can influence emotions

due to facial feedback hypothesis where facial expressions provide feedback to the brain regarding emotion being expressed, causing that emotion to intensify

47
Q

what is the james-lange theory of emotion?

A

stimulus -> physiological rxn (ANS) -> labeling the emotion

48
Q

what is the cannon-bard theory of emotion?

A

stimulus -> subcortical brain activity -> physiological response (ANS) and emotion simultaneously

49
Q

state the schacter-singer 2-factor theory.

A
  • both physiological rxn and cognitive appraisal must occur before emotion is experienced

stimulus -> cognitive appraisal + physiological rxn (ANS) -> emotion

50
Q

state lazarus’ cognitive-mediational theory of emotion

A
  • a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and emotional reaction
  • stimulus -> cognitive appraisal ->emotion -> physiological response (ANS)

intro to psychology (7 decks)

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