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intro to psychology > lec 8: memory > Flashcards

lec 8: memory Flashcards

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1
Q

define memory

A

memory is an information processing system that encodes, stores and retrieves information.

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2
Q

how are learning and memory different sides of the same coin?

A

memory enables learning. memory is a cognitive system that encodes, stores and retrieves the information that we learn.

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3
Q

list 2 metaphors for memory

A
  1. library/storehouse - hold large amounts of info (Haberlandt, 1999)
  2. computer - encodes, stores, retrieves info
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4
Q

why is video recorder not a metaphor for memory?

A
  • video recorder makes complete and accurate records.
  • human memory represents unique interpretations and perceptions of events, not accurate/objective representations.
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5
Q

human memory is interpretative.

define interpretative.

A

interpretative memory is whereby we take in information, discard certain details, and organise the rest into meaningful patterns

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6
Q

when do humans make the most complete and accurate memories?

A
  1. info which we focused our attention on
  2. info which we are interested in
  3. info which arouses us emotionally (unless biases brought into play)
  4. info connecting previous experiences
  5. info which has been rehearsed
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7
Q

human memory relies on a cognitive approach - information-processing model.

what is this information-processing model?

A

information-processing model:

  • emphasises systematic changes that information undergoes to become permanent memory
  • emphasises that memory is functional. its 3 basic functions are encodes, stores, retrieves
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8
Q

the 1st basic function of our memory is encoding.

define encoding and state its process.

A

encoding is the modification of information to fit the preferred format for our memory system.

process:
1. select stimulus from vast array of inputs assaulting our senses. make preliminary classification of this stimulus (taste/odor/pain/visual).

  1. identify the features of this input. (loud or soft/have you heard of it before)
  2. put a mental tag/label on it to make it meaningful.
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9
Q

true or false: we are unaware of the process of encoding when we are doing it.

A

true.

the process of encoding is usually automatic and rapid, we won’t be aware of it.

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10
Q

what kind of memory needs deliberate encoding effort and what kind doesn’t?

A

needs effort: when we acquire new concepts, like the basic principles of social science research

no effort: emotionally charged experiences

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11
Q

define elaboration in encoding.

A

elaboration is the linking of new concepts/materials to existing information in our memory.

eg. connecting new material learnt in class to our previous experience.

failure to elaborate is a common cause for memory errors.

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12
Q

what is the 2nd basic function of memory?

A
  • storage
  • retention of encoded information over time
  • not easy: memory consists of 3 stages, each of which stores memories for different lengths of time and in different forms
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13
Q

what is the trick to long-term storage of information that is hard to remember?

A

recode material in a way that long-term memory prefers it before the time clock runs out

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14
Q

the 3rd basic function of memory is retrieval. what does it do?

A

retrieval is the location and recovery of information from our memory.

when encoded properly and given a good cue, it only takes a split second to access that memory and bring it to consciousness. it can also be accessed to influence our behaviour at a subconscious level.

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15
Q

define eidetic imagery.

A

an especially clear and persistent form of memory that is rare, aka photographic memory.

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16
Q

why is the term “eidetic imagery” preferred over “photographic memory”?

A
  • eidetic images differ from camera images
  • photographic memory would portray everything in minute detail
  • eidetic image portrays the most interesting and meaningful parts of the scene most accurately and is subject to same kind of distortions “normal” memories can have
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17
Q

why is eidetic memory not all good?

A

eidetikers report that their vivid imagery clutters their minds and interferes with other things they want to think about, and these images may even last for days.

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18
Q

true or false: eidetic memories are like hallucinations since eidetikers described these images as having the vividness of an original experience, and that they visualise these images “outside their head” rather than in the “mind’s eye”.

A

false.

eidetic images are so vivid they can seem like original experiences and they may be visualised outside of the mind, but, unllike people who are hallucinating, eidetikers know that these images are mental images.

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19
Q

what are the 3 stages of memory?

who developed this 3-stage model?

A

richard atkinson and richard shiffrin developed the 3-stage model of memory. they are:
1. sensory memory
2. working memory
3. long-term memory

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20
Q

what does sensory memory do?

A

briefly store sensory impressions of stimuli, just long enough for working memory to screen them and decide what should be given importance and what should be ignored.

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21
Q

true or false: there is no meaning attached to sensory memories.

A

true.

sensory memory simply briefly stores the sensory impressions of stimuli just long enough for working memory to give meaning to some of them.

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22
Q

how many items can sensory memory hold, and for how long?

A

12-16 items, for 1/4 to a few seconds.

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23
Q

what is multiple sensory store?

A

we have separate sensory memory for each of our sensory pathways. All feed into working memory.

  1. visual stimulation - iconic memory
  2. auditory stimulation - echoic memory
  3. tactile stimulation - tactile sensory memory
  4. olfactory stimulation - olfactory sensory memory
  5. gustatory stimulation - gustatory sensory memory
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24
Q

what is the biological basis for sensory memory?

A
  • memory images take the form of neural activity in the sense organs and their pathways to the brain.
  • thus sensory memory consists of rapidly fading trace of stimulation in our sensory systems.
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25
Q

define working memory

A

working memory is the 2nd stage of memory. it is the processor of conscious experience, including incoming information from sensory memory and information being retrieved from long-term memory.

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26
Q

what is the capacity and duration of working memory?

A

capacity: 7±2 (magic no. by geroge miller)
duration: 20-30s

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27
Q

according to working memory, explain why it is unsafe to drive while using phone?

A
  • limited capacity of working memory makes it unsafe
  • when working memory fills up info demanding our attention, we fail to notice new info streaming into our senses
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28
Q

what are the 4 activities working memory engages in?

A
  1. central executive
  2. phonological loop
  3. sketchpad
  4. episodic buffer
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29
Q

true or false: working memory has the smallest storage capacity of the 3 memory stages.

A

true.

  • info bottleneck in the memory system as it is caught in between sensory and long-term memory with greater capacities
  • as a result, much incoming info from sensory memory is lost
  • i think that is also why working memory was called short-term memory.
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30
Q

define chunking

A

chunking is the organisation of pieces of information into meaningful units/chunks/parts so as to free up space in working memory.

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31
Q

define elaborative rehearsal

A

a working memory process where info is consciously reviewed and actively related to info in long-term memory

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32
Q

define maintenance rehearsal

A

a working memory process where info is merely repeated to prevent it from fading in working memory.

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33
Q

true or false: students should use the strategy of maintenance rehearsal for memorising exam material.

A

false.

  • the working memory process of maintenance rehearsal can keep info temporarily in consciousness but not effective for transfer of info to long-term memory.
  • better strategy is elaborative rehearsal where info is consciously reviewed and actively related to info in long-term memory.
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34
Q

define central executive.

A
  • one of the 4 activities working memory engages in
  • directs attention to impt input from sensory memory and long-term memory and interfaces with brain’s voluntary response (consciousness) system.
35
Q

what is the caution on elaborative rehearsal?

A

get facts straight. connecting wrong info with existing info leads to false memories.

36
Q

define phonological loop.

A
  • one of the 4 activities working memory engages in
  • acoustic encoding: converts info from sensory memory into sound patterns in working memory
37
Q

define sketchpad.

A
  • one of the 4 activities working memory engages in
  • visual and spatial encoding: encodes visual images and mental representations of objects in space
  • requires coodination among several brain systems, including frontal and occipital lobes
38
Q

define episodic buffer.

A
  • one of the 4 activities working memory engages in
  • binding info together: binds various pieces of info in working memory into a coherent episode
  • acts as temporary storage for various pieces of info that we need to bind together to form a coherent episode
39
Q

what is the levels-of-processing theory in the craik and tulving experiment (1975)?

A
  • info that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better.
  • deepest level of processing occurs when meaning is being analysed
40
Q

what is the biological basis of working memory?

A
  • holds info in the form of messages flashed repeatedly in nerve circuits
  • brain imaging implicates brain regions in frontal cortex, which in turn project to all sensory parts of the brain and areas involved in long-term memory.
  • brain imaging also shows that frontal lobes house some anatomically distinct executive processes that focus attention on info in short-term storage.
  • together, these brain modules direct attention, set priorities, make plans, update contents of working memory and monitor the time sequence of events.
41
Q

what is a special feature of long-term memory?

A
  • words and concepts encoded by their meanings
  • their meanings connect them to info with similar or related meanings, creating a huge web of interconnected associations
  • good retrieval cues allows quick location and retrieval of info
42
Q

what is the capacity and duration of long-term memory?

A

unlimited for both.

43
Q

what are the 2 main components of long-term memory?

A
  1. procedural memory - for how things are done
  2. declarative memory - for things we can describe (facts and experiences we remember)
44
Q

what is procedural memory?

A
  • a register for how things are done
  • operates outside awareness and doesn’t require much effort after we learned how to do it
  • incl. motor skills, operant conditioning, classical conditioning
  • eg. riding a bike, throwing a ball, playing cello
45
Q

what is declarative memory, aka fact memory?

A
  • register of facts, impressions and events.
  • requires conscious mental effort
  • consists of 2 subdivisions:
    1. semantic memory (language, facts, concepts, general knowledge)
    2. episodic memory (events, personal experiences)
46
Q

explain episodic memory.

A
  • a division of declarative memory
  • stores memories of events in life
  • internal diary of autobiographical memory
  • stores temporal coding (time tags) to identify when the event happened
  • stores context coding to indicate where the event happened
47
Q

explain semantic memory.

A
  • a division of declarative memory
  • stores concepts and languages
  • internal encyclopedia
  • does not store temporal and contextual coding
48
Q

what is schema?

A
  • cluster of info that represents ideas or concepts in semantic memory
  • provides context for understanding objects and events
49
Q

how do schemas aid long-term declarative memory?

A

help us make sense of new info by giving us ready-made framework

50
Q

what is childhood amnesia?

A

the inability to remember events that happened in the 1st 2 to 3 years of your life.

51
Q

why can’t you remember your 1st birthday party, even though the brain has begun to create necessary circuits by the end of the 1st year of life?

A
  • limited language skills (for verbal encoding of memories)
  • lack of sense of self
  • lack of complex schemas
52
Q

define engram.

A

engram is the physical changes in the brain associated with memory, aka memory trace.

53
Q

what is the condition and its cause in H.M’s medical records?

A

anterograde amnesia, the disability to form new memories. impairment in ability to transfer info from working memory to long-term memory.

cause: removal of hippocampus and amygdala on both sides of the brain, in an effort to treat his frequent epileptic seizures.

54
Q

H.M had his hippocampus and amygdala removed from both sides of his brain, and he suffered anterograde amnesia.

what did H.M’s case teach us?

A

hippocampus and amygdala are essential parts of the brain that forms new declarative memories, but not when it comes to retrieving old memories.

55
Q

true or false: the hippocampus is affected in Alzheimer’s disease.

A

true.

Alzheimer’s disease is the inability to make new declarative memories, which the hippocampus is responsible for.

56
Q

true or false: the hippocampus is responsible for PTSD.

A

false.

  • amygdala processes memories that have strong emotional associations
  • emotional associations aid rapid access and retrieval of info from lon-term memory
  • thus amygdala plays a role in persistent and troubling memories
  • lasting biological changes may occur in brains of individuals with PTSD
57
Q

declarative memories include semantic memories (facts) and episodic memories (events).

where are declarative memories stored?

A

cerebral cortex, with fragments of memory being stored in the part of the cerebral cortex that processes that particular sensory signal.

  • visual memory - visual cortex
  • sounds - auditory cortex
  • smells - olfactory bulb
  • sequence of events - frontal lobes
  • procedural memories - cerebellum and motor cortex
58
Q

how does the brain put fragments of new declarative memory together?

A
  • consolidation: process by which short-term memories become long-term memories over time with the help of hippocampus.
  • fragments of that memory from different parts of the cerebral cortex gather in the hippocampus, which sorts through and re-assembles the relevant ones into a coherent memory.
  • each time, neural pathway for that particular memory becomes stronger, until eventually, hippocampus is no longer needed to piece memory together. a single fragment of that memory can produce the entire memory.
59
Q

did H.M retain the ability to make new procedural memories?

A

yes. hippocampus is not involved in making new procedural memories, thus without it, he can still make them.

60
Q

what is retrograde amnesia? what is its biological basis?

A

inability to retrieve info previously stored in memory.

initially, memories form as fragile chemical traces at the synapse and consolidate into more permanent synaptic changes over time. durng consolidation, memories are vulnerable to interference by new experiences, like a blow to the head or drugs.

61
Q

define flashbulb memory.

A

a clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful or emotional event.

62
Q

what is the difference between implicit and explicit memories?

A
  • implicit memories affect our mental processes and behaviour without coming into full consciousness. they are not deliberately learned and we have no conscious awareness of them.
  • explicit memories are processed with attention, and can be recalled, requiring conscious awareness
63
Q

what are retrieval cues?

A
  • stimuli bringing memories into consciousness, or cueing behaviours.
  • good cues, accurate retrieval
64
Q

fill in the blanks:

the more extensive your _ _ _ , the greater the chances of retrieval.

A

web of associations

65
Q

define priming.

A

Priming is a technique used to cue implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without the awareness of the connection between cue and retrieved info.

it also can be used to study nonconscious processes.

66
Q

define “gist” in terms of meaningful organisation.

A

Gist is the main idea or meaning of a new piece of information.

notes:
- storing info in LTM requires giving meaning to the info while in wokring memory
- giving meaning means that new info must be connected to info already in LTM
- thus to get the gist of the new info, need to link it to personal experiences of what we already know

67
Q

what are the 2 ways to cue explicit memory?

A
  1. recall
    - requires production of previously presented info almost entirely form memory
    - involves minimal cues (essay qns)
  2. recognition
    - requires identification of stimulus that has previously been experienced
    - like cus on MCQs
    - less demanding than recall
    - can produce more memories than recall
    - make more false memories as compared to recall
68
Q

what is the ecoding specificity principle?

A
  • a factor that affects retrieval of memory
  • memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which in was formed.
  • the more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the info was encoded, the better it can be remembered.
69
Q

what are desirable difficulties?

A

by giving students assignments that require interaction with the material in many different ways like projects, essays and problems, students can build greater web of associations and thus can retrieve this material better.

70
Q

retrieval of memory depends on how the information is encoded and how it is cued.

name 3 other factors that affect retrieval of memory.

A
  1. encoding specificity

encoding specificity principle - the more closely retrieval cues match the form in which the info was encoded, the easier it is to retrieve it

  1. mood

mood-congruent memory - memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood.

  1. prospective memory

the aspect of memory that enables one to remember to take some action in the future.

people usually rely on continuous monitoring (keeping intended action in mind) to remember a prospective memory, but it is easily derailed by distraction or habit.

solutions: use a reliable prompt, or think of a specific cue ou expect to encounter before doing this intended action.

71
Q

what is the TOT phenomenon?

A

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon - inability to recall a word while knowing it is in memory.

occurs during recall attempt when retrieval cues poorly match the encoding of the word in memory.

72
Q

what is transcience?

A
  • 1st of Schacter’s 7 sins of memory
  • impermanence of LTM as it gradually fades over time
73
Q

what causes transcience?

answer in this format:
a) cause
b) 3 causes of this cause
c) 2 types of this cause

A

interference.

3 causes of interference:
1. similarity of 2 sets of material
2. meaningless material more vulnerable to interference compared to meaningful ones
3. emotional material (eg. a break up today can interfere remembering info in class tmr)

2 types of interference:
1. proactive (old memories preventing learning and remembering of new info)
2. retroactive (new information preventing retrieval of old memories)

74
Q

what is the serial position effect?

A

a form of interference related to sequence in which info is presented. due to primacy and recency effects, items in the middle are more likely to be less remembered than the 1st or last.

75
Q

describe Schacter’s 2nd sin of memory, absent-mindedness.

A

absent-mindedness is forgetting caused by lapses in attention.

  • retrieval failure due to lack of attention on retrieval end (forgetting anniversary) or lack of attention during encoding (misplacing items)
76
Q

describe Schacter’s 3rd sin of memory, blocking.

A

Blocking is the inability to access or retrieve a memory due to interference.

Other causes: poorly matched retrieval cues and form in which memory is encoded (TOT), stress, distractions, age

77
Q

define Schacter’s 4th sin of memory, misattribution.

A

misattribution is a memory fault when memories that are retrieved are associated with the wrong time, place, or person.

78
Q

describe Schacter’s 5th sin of memory, suggestibility.

A

suggestibility is the process of memory distortion due to deliberate or unintended suggestions.

  • misinformation can distort memory, so can subtle cues and suggestions
  • fabricated memories can surface via merely suggestions
79
Q

define Schacter’s 7th sin of memory, persistence.

A

persistence is the inability to remove unwanted memories from our minds.

80
Q

describe Schacter’s 6th sin of memory, bias.

A
  • influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory
  • 2 common forms:
    1. expectancy bias - unconscious tendency to remember events as being congruent to our expectations
    2. self-consistency bias - common idea that we are more consistent to our beliefs, attitudes and opinions than we actually are, thus distorting our memories
81
Q

5 factors affecting accuracy of eyewitnesses.

A
  1. leading questions
  2. passing of substantial amount of time
  3. repeated retrieval (reconstruction of memory everytime it is retrieved increases chances of error)
  4. age (younger children, older adults)
  5. unwarranted confidence
82
Q

what are the advantages of Schacter’s seven sins of memory?

A
  1. transcience - we only remember things that we need now. older info is discarded so we don’t get confused by many information on say, tests.
  2. blocking - allows only most relevant info to surface, helping to prevent distractions.
  3. absent-mindedness - ability to shift our attention.
  4. misattributions, biases and suggestibility - result from a memory system that is built to focus on meaning and discard details
  5. persistence - result from a memory system that is responsive to emotional experiences, especially dangerous ones
83
Q

mnemonic strategies improve memory by making connections between new info and info already in LTM.

name and describe 2 mnemonic strategies.

A
  1. Method of Loci - associate items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations (worth noting: visual imagery is one of the most effective forms of encoding)
  2. natural language mediator - word associated with new info. (eg. acronyms, jingles, story. phrase)

intro to psychology (7 decks)

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