Learning Theories Flashcards
Learning Theories (COST)
Cognitive Theory of
Learning
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning
Theory (Observational)
Thorndike’s Laws
Learning Theories Key Terms
Positive reinforcement – stimulus given when response is given
Negative reinforcement – stimulus withdrawn once response received
Punishment – giving a stimulus to prevent a response occurring
Stimulus-Response bond (S-R bond) - an individual is conditioned by stimuli which are ‘connected’ or ‘bonded’ to responses
Thorndike’s Laws
- Law of exercise
- Law of effect
- law of readiness
(Thorndike’s Law of Exercise
Repeating or rehearsing the S-R connections is more likely to strengthen them. If the desired response occurs, reinforcement is necessary
The correct response should be practiced/rehearsed if learning is to take place.
E.g. skills improve through training so you train with more focus
practical example; repeated shooting in netball practice strengthens the S-R bond
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
If the response is followed by a ‘satisfier’, then the S-R bond is strengthened. If the response is followed by an ‘annoyer’, then the S-R bond is weakened. This means that pleasant outcomes are likely to motivate the performer to repeat the action
the effect of the response dictates the next response
E.g. positive outcome/satisfaction from practice makes you continue
practical example positive comments about their netball shooting technique strengthens a players S-R bond whilst negative comments weaken it
Thorndike’s Law of Readiness
The performer must be physically and mentally able to complete the task effectively
The performer should be ready/mature/intellectually aware/capable to perform the response
e.g. you need to be physically mature/strong enough to start some activities/training
practical example; a shooter in netball needs to be physically strong enough to push the ball the required distance to the hoop. They also need the mental capacity to understand the correct technique
Cognitive Learning Theory (Gestaltist)
Cognitive means concerned with thinking and understanding rather than connecting certain stimuli to certain behaviours
It is also known as insight learning
The theory believes that we take in information from our environment and then use our previous experiences (memory and perception) to help solve the problems.
Practical example In a tennis match the opposition often serves a short sliced 2nd serve. The player learns to move forward for the 2nd serve.
Learning is best achieved by presenting the whole skill to the learner
Learning takes place in a realistic situation the more open the environment the better
Learners must understand and think about the problem as a whole this requires insight and problem solving
It is Not just a case of stimulus-response, there are mental processes, known as intervening variables, which occur between a stimulus being received before learner performs a response.
Learner uses mental rehearsal or perception to aid learning
This theory suggests that the wider range of activities that children experience the better their decision making in sport.
practical example a table tennis player learning how to put spin on the ball is using cognitive theory even though she may not know it
Social Learning Theory
Bandura
Observing and copying the actions of others
Significant others, or those perceived as important, are more likely to be copied
The person being copied or observed is often referred to as the model.
According to Bandura (1977), copying or modelling can affect our performance through 4 processes
Attention
Retention
Motor Production
Motivation
Social Learning Theory
Attention
To be able to imitate the performer must first pay attention to the demonstration and focus on important cues (cueing)
Attention can be influenced by:
The perceived attractiveness of the model
The competence of the model
The status of the model
Personal attention span (of the observer)
Incentives that are present
Social Learning Theory
Retention
The observer must be able to remember the model that is presented.
Mental rehearsal can improve the retention of this mental image
Social Learning Theory
Motor Production
The performer must be physically and mentally able to imitate the skill being produced
Demonstrations need to match the observers capabilities
Feedback will be important if the motor reproduction is to match the model
Social Learning Theory
Motivation
The level of motivation of the observer is crucial if they are going to imitate the performance
External reinforcement of the model will increase the motivation to imitate it
Factors that impact on Modelling
Factors that impact on Modelling
- High status of the person who is modelling
- Same as or similar to us in terms of age/gender/sport/position/ attitude/culture
- Model’s behaviour is reinforced or use of vicarious reinforcement
- The models performance is of a high standard, is consistent, accurate and successful
- If the models is warm, friendly, attractive
- The more of these factors that are met by the model the more likely it is that the behaviour will be copied or if a model satisfies only one of these factors it is not likely to be copied
- If the demonstration is clear and repeated
- If the observer is focused on the relevant cues, can remember what they have seen and uses mental rehearsal
- If the observer is motivated
Types of Guidance
Verbal Guidance
Visual Guidance
Manual Guidance
Mechanical Guidance
Types of Feedback
Intrinsic Feedback Extrinsic Feedback Positive Feedback Negative Feedback Knowledge of Results Knowledge of Performance
Intrinsic Feedback
From internal proprioceptors about the feel of the movement. Kinaesthetic awareness is also involved
A type of continuous feedback that comes from proprioceptors – nerve receptors found in muscles, ligaments and joints that pick up movement information
Example:
The feel of whether you have hit the ball in the middle of the bat in Rounders
Advantages:
Occurs as movement happens - so movements can be corrected immediately
Performer does not have to rely on anyone
Disadvantages:
If in cognitive stage, performer may not be able to interpret information correctly and performance will deteriorate
Extrinsic Feedback
From external sources such as a teacher/coach or a team mate. It is received by the visual and auditory systems and is used to augment intrinsic feedback
Example:
A coach telling a gymnast that they need to point their toes during a cartwheel
Advantages:
Coaching points can lead to improvements, as long as information is accurate
Disadvantages:
Inaccurate feedback can negatively affect performance
If the source is unreliable motivation can drop
Does not encourage kinaesthetic awareness
Positive Feedback
Received when the movement is successful and this reinforces learning
Gives information about the successful outcome so that learning is reinforced
Example:
Saying to yourself that you performed a badminton serve correctly after making good contact with the shuttle
Advantages:
Can lead to positive reinforcement, correct S-R bond is formed
Extremely motivating
Helps build self-esteem and confidence
Disadvantages:
If undeserved can lead to inappropriate S-R bonds and performance will deteriorate
Some performers do not respond to praise and may ignore it
Negative Feedback
Received when the movement is incorrect. It is then used to correct the movement to make it successful the next time
Information about an unsuccessful outcome which can be used to build more successful strategies
Example:
A coach telling a gymnast that they have not kept their body straight in a handspring vault
Advantages:
Some are motivated by negative feedback - resulting in more determined performers
Allows performers to be clear which aspect needs improvement
Best suited to autonomous learners who require skill refinement
Disadvantages:
Can be demotivating
Can be detrimental to learning
Knowledge of Results (outcome)
Knowledge of results is feedback based on the outcome of our movement. It is extrinsic
A type of terminal feedback that gives the performer information about the end result of the response
Example:
Watching if the ball goes into the net during a set shot in basketball
Can be positive or negative
It is important in improvement the next performance of the movement
Advantages:
Allows performers to see the outcome of their actions
Can motivate performer
Disadvantages:
May demotivate if performers are unsuccessful
Knowledge of Performance (technique)
Concerns the movement itself and the quality of it. Information about how well the movement is being executed, rather than the end results.
Usually comes from external sources but it can be internal from kinaesthetic awareness
Example:
It can come from a teacher/coach explaining what went well and not so well
It can also come from a video recording or the feeling of the movement
Advantages:
Allows performers to know what good performance feels like
Can motivate performer
Disadvantages:
May demotivate if performers are unsuccessful
Effective Feedback
Effective Feedback
The type, amount and timing of feedback are crucial. The following should be considered to ensure feedback is effective:
Feedback should correspond to the skill level of the performer (cognitive/associative/autonomous)
Limit the amount of information given (concise)
Feedback should be given immediately or as soon as possible
Feedback should relate to the individual
It must be accurate
Try to facilitate internal feedback/kinesthesis
Verbal Guidance
Provided by a coach or significant other
It is used to describe and explain how to perform an activity
It is often used alongside visual guidance
Advantages:
Can reinforce good movements and identify errors to be corrected
Can hold the attention of the performer and be used to motivate
Disadvantages:
Can lead to ‘information overload’
If guidance is inaccurate, skills will be hindered
Visual Guidance
Images or demonstrations can be used to help a performer
A coach should highlight key points of the movement reinforcing these key points is known as ‘cueing’
The image or demonstration shown needs to be accurate
Advantages
Easy to create mental picture
Skill can be seen at different stages
Encourages observational learning
Disadvantages:
If demonstration incorrect, bad habits could form
Coach may not be able to show accurate demonstration
Visual representation may be unclear or too quick
Manual/Mechanical Guidance
This involves physical support from another person (manual) or a device (mechanical)
It may involve a performer being physically directed by another person
This type of guidance can reduce fear in dangerous situations
It can also give kinaesthetic feel or remove it depending on the performer
It could negatively affect motivation and cause negative transfer
Advantages:
Helps with confidence and sense of safety
Can be used to isolate a skill action, allowing the performer to only focus on that e.g. float in swimming
Disadvantages:
Can be over-restrictive, performer may feel like they lack control
Can lead to false kinesthesis
