LEARNING - RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards
animal studies & ethics
THE 3 R’s:
-the 3 R’s are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals
REDUCTION:
->reduce the number of animals used in expts by:
–>improving experimental techniques
–>improving data analysis techniques
–>sharing info with other researchers
REFINEMENT:
->refining the expt or the way animals are cared for to reduce their suffering by:
–>using less invasive techniques
–>better medical care
–>better living conditions
REPLACEMENT:
->replacing animal studies with alternatives such as:
–>experimenting on cell cultures instead of animals
–>using computer models
–>using human volunteers
ANIMAL ETHICS GUIDELINES:
->generally, the main aim of ethical guidelines is to:
–>avoid/minimise discomfort
–>discuss research with colleagues and HO inspectors
–>do the ends justify the means?
–>consider alternatives
1) THE LAW:
->there are laws protecting the rights of animals, failure to comply with these laws can result in prosecution
->the government bill “Animals (Scientific Procedures)” was passed in 1986, to control the use of animals in all kinds of scientific research
->the HO Regulations state that anyone carrying out a regulated procedure must hold a project license, and the HO has an inspection system to ensure that rules are not violated
2) FOOD DEPRIVATION:
->when planning food deprivation studies, researchers must consider the normal feeding or drinking patterns if the animal, dependent upon the species
->when studying reinforcement, it may be necessary to deprive an animal of food, but if it’s still available as a reward this could meet the rules
3) ELECTRIC SHOCK
->based on observations of animal behaviour, shocks may cause SOME, but not extreme pain
->the HO controls the permissible levels of shock
->in the UK, the avg shock level is 0.68mA, averaging 0.57seconds, which produces an unpleasant tickling sensation in humans
4) PAIN, DISTRESS, AND SURGERY:
->without a HO license and relevant certificates, procedures causing pain, distress, or surgery are ILLEGAL
->if you have a license and relevant certificates, you must prove there is no alternative way to conduct the expt
->experienced surgical staff must carry out the procedure, and animals must be given time to recover, and if unable to they should be respectfully euthanised to end their suffering
5) UNDERSTANDING SPECIES DIFFERENCES:
->the guidelines stress the importance of understanding species differences in relation to:
–>caging and social environment (spacious, similar to their natural environment)
–>stress caused to wild animals when marking them for identification
–>social animals should be kept in a social setting (eg. monkeys have companions)
–>disturbance should be kept to a minimum (if animals are to be studied in their natural habitat, the species itself and the ecosystem should be considered
6) MINIMUM NUMBER OF ANIMALS AND ENDANGERED SPECIES:
->animal studies must use the minimum number of animals required to produce valid and reliable results
->endangered animals must ONLY be used if there is appropriate justification that other species cannot be used
7)COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS:
->the UK require a cost-benefit analysis to be carried out before experimentation
->cost-benefit analysis involves considering the pain, distress, and death of animals versus gaining new knowledge and the development of medical advances for humans
->Bateson (1986) developed a system to help researchers decide whether or not their animal research should go ahead
a) quality of research (will the findings have a definite benefit?)
b) the amount of suffering (observing animal behaviour and signs of distress)
c) the likelihood of benefit
STATS FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH:
->according to the American Psychological Association, 8% of psychological research uses animals, of this:
–>90% uses rodents and birds
–>5% uses primates
–>dogs and cats are rarely used
AO3: EVALUATION
PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES:
-animals have very short gestation periods and short reproductive cycles
-animals are relatively small and easy to handle, and some animals (eg. mice) have similar brain structures to humans
-some procedures require strict control over the environment - may not be possible w/ humans
-drugs have been developed that otherwise would not have been
ETHICAL ADVANTAGES:
-the knowledge obtained may also improve the lives of the species being tested on
-pro-speciesism suggests we ought to do all we can to protect our species
-procedures can be done on animals (eg. lesioning and ablation) that can’t be done on humans
-damage to a human to study drugs would be considered more unethical than damage to animals
PRACTICAL DISADVANTAGES:
-animals brains are not the same as human brains, therefore results may not be generalisable to real life
-human lives are complex and rarely occur in isolation
-some diseases (eg. Parkinsons) have to be replicated in animals using drugs, so may not be the same as the disease itself, decreasing the validity
-the morning sickness drug (thalidomide) showed negative outcomes for humans, but not for animals
ETHICAL DISADVANTAGES:
-animals should be treated ethically as they are not sufficiently different from humans
-many animals feel pain
-animals in expts are not in their natural surroundings and therefore are in distressing conditions
-speciesism suggests the likely benefits of research focuses on the benefits for humans but not for animals, which isn’t fair
observations
NATURALISTIC:
-researcher does not manipulate the environment
-observes ppts in their normal, everyday environment
-often used when conducting lab research is unrealistic and not practical
-differs from structured observation in that it involves it’s natural setting with no attempts at intervention on the part of the researcher
-can collect both quantitative and qualitative data
(eg. watching people’s behaviour at a bus stop)
CONTROLLED/STRUCTURED:
-researcher manipulates the environment
-observing ppts in a situation that has been produced by the experimenter (set up)
-occur in either natural OR lab setting
-the observer intervenes in order to cause an event, “sets up” a situation so that events can be easily recorded
-allows researchers to record behaviour that may be different to observe using naturalistic observation, but that are more naturalistic than an artificial lab expt
(eg. Bandura, 1961)
OBSERVATIONAL DESIGN:
->overt: ppts are aware they’re being observed
->covert: ppts are unaware they’re being observed
->ppt: the investigator becomes part of the sample to gain better insight
->non-ppt: the investigator will usually watch the ppts from a distance or using a one-way mirror
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE:
->event sampling: specific behaviours are recorded every time they occur
->time sampling: the behaviour of each ppt is recorded at fixed intervals
HOW DO OBSERVATIONS PRODUCE DATA?
->tally counts: the observer writes down when and how many times a certain behaviour occurs
->observer narratives: the observer may take notes during the session and then go back later to try to collect data and discern behaviour patterns from these notes
->audio/video recordings: depending upon the type of behaviour being observed, the researchers might also decide to make audio or video tapings of each observation session
->continuous: where the observer records everything that happens in detail, perhaps with a video camera
->inter-rater reliability: sometimes it is useful to have 2+ observers, if they obtain similar results this indicates good reliability
evaluation of observation
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
(s)->avoids problems with consent and deception as often this type of observation takes place in a public setting, where people can be expected to be seen by others
(s)->behaviour will be natural as ppts are in their natural setting and may not be aware they’re being studied, meaning they will act normally, thus increasing validity
(w)->lack of control results in inability to replicate due to the setting of this kind of observation, therefore harder to test for reliability
(w)->ethical issues of invasion of privacy, especially when ppts are unaware they’re being studied
CONTROLLED/STRUCTURED OBSERVATION:
(s)->avoids problems with consent and deception as ppts are aware they’re being observed and taking part in a study
(s)->greater control means it is easier to replicate as there is likely a standardised procedure
(w)->demand characteristics are higher risk because ppts may be aware that they’re being studied and may unconsciously change how they behave, decreasing validity
(w)->low ecological validity due to the artificial setting in how this observation is carried out, therefore decreasing generalisability to real life
OVERT DESIGN:
(s)->informed consent can be gained, increasing the ethics of the study
(w)->we may encounter the Hawthorne Effect, where behaviour alters as a result of knowledge of observation
COVERT DESIGN:
(s)->ppts do not know they’re being observed and so are more likely to act naturally, increasing validity
(w)->problematic ethics as ppts are unable to choose whether or not to participate
PPT OBSERVATION:
(s)->enables the researcher to get an “insider” viewpoint and findings may be more detailed than if obtained through non-ppt observation
(w)->may cause (unintentional) experimenter bias, influencing ppt behaviour, causing invalid results
NON-PPT OBSERVATION:
(s)->much easier for the experimenter to record data as they don’t need to worry about being involved as a ppt and can focus on observation (also reduces risk of experimenter bias)
(w)->lacks “insider” viewpoint, therefore reducing the depth and detail of the findings - may cause a less thorough understanding of the results
