Learning and Performance Flashcards
What is operant conditioning?
Learning based on strengthening the relationship between stimulus and response / SR
bond;
Increases the likelihood of the desired response reoccurring / equiv
Trial and error learning;
Required term
Learner associates consequences of previous action with current situation;
Explanation
Shaping;
Required term
Manipulation of the environment to get the desired action;
Explanation
Appropriate example of shaping – use of targets / lower baskets to give success /make practice easier / etc;
Using an example from a team game, explain the term negative reinforcement.
E g: named team game, identified reinforcer and identified criticism
(Sub – max 1)
(Use of punishment is incorrect)
A – eg in a rugby match, the coach criticises poor play
(Negative reinforcement) – when the adverse stimulus is withdrawn when the desired response occurs;
Eg coach stops criticising when skill is successful
Makes required behaviour more likely / strengthens S-R bond;
Skilful play within a game relies on effective information processing. According to Adam’s
closed loop theory, two pieces of information called traces are used to control movement.
Name these two traces.
Memory trace and Perceptual trace
Required terms only
Skilful play within a game relies on effective information processing. According to Adam’s
closed loop theory, two pieces of information called traces are used to control movement
Describe how these two traces are used to produce skilled movement
Memory trace (MT) = plan of action / motor programme / acts as reference standard / initiates movement;
MT – based on experience / practice / previous performance;
Perceptual Trace – directs / controls current movement;
Learning involves development of PT through feedback;
Two (memory and perceptual) are compared;
If they match / correspond – movement continues;
Mismatch produces error corrections (during performance);
Adjusted memory trace = new motor programme
Games players may find that their skill performance reaches a plateau.
Suggest possible solutions that a coach could use to minimise a learning plateau
Distributed sessions / rest / recovery periods;
Resetting of goals / tasks more challenging / competition against opposition;
Offering extrinsic rewards / encouragement / praise / positive reinforcement;
(Not motivation – more detail – how to motivate)
Using mental rehearsal / imagery / visualisation;
Provide feedback / visual guidance;
Use of whole – part – whole / part method / breaking the skill down;
Ensure performer focuses on appropriate cues;
Make practices more varied / more interesting / fun / enjoyment;
Make performer fitter;
Better quality coaching / new coach / change coaching method;
Concept of plateau in performance explained to performer;
Games players will practise to improve their skills, but to do this regularly requires
motivation.
(i) How does intrinsic motivation differ from extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic from within / inside and extrinsic from outside
(If say ‘intrinsic from within and extrinsic is not’ = too vague)
Intrinsic = drive / urge from within
Explain why intrinsic motivation is thought to be a better form of motivation than extrinsic
motivation.
Intrinsic motivation gives performer a sense of control over performance;
Concerned with self
(Excessive) extrinsic may reduce / lead to loss of (intrinsic) motivation / play for prize, not love of game;
Performers demand increasing extrinsic rewards / some rewards unimportant / lose their value
Failure to achieve extrinsic reward may lead to loss of (intrinsic) motivation / if no reward, give up;
Extrinsic motivation controls or manipulates behaviour / overly reliant
(Excessive) need for extrinsic – too much pressure / win at all costs / leads to cheating
(‘Extrinsic is no good‘ is too vague as it is in the question)
Observational learning involves the stages of attention, retention, motor production and
motivation.
(i) Using examples, name the two different types of extrinsic motivation
Tangible – badges / prizes / rewards / cups / medals, etc
Require name and example
Intangible – Praise / peers / fans / crowd cheering / fame, etc
Require name and example
Accept personal best if in context, eg coach telling you that you’ve achieved it
Explain the factors that can influence the effectiveness of attention, retention and motor
production in observational learning.
Attention:
Stages must be identified
How attractive / successful / powerful or if action has actual benefits / functional / peer / role model / significant other
(Can only achieve max 4 if all three areas covered)
Accept opposites
(Do not accept that attention is paying attention)
Demonstration can be seen / is accurate / highlight key areas of the skill / details / cues
Retention:
Can the observer remember / keep the skill in memory / recall / mental image
(Do not accept that retention is to retain)
Demonstration is meaningful / relevant / realistic succinct and clear / use mental rehearsal
Motor production:
Performer has the physical capability / abilities / skills to complete the task
Immediate opportunity to practice / break down complex skills / show progression
Performers need to learn skills in order to take part in physical activity. Skilled movements
are learned, economic and efficient – they do not waste energy.
One way of helping performers to learn is to set suitable goals.
What are the benefits of goal setting?
Improved confidence / self-efficacy
Increased motivation / drive
Key terms:
Task persistence / want to keep trying
Reduced anxiety / more relaxed / equiv
Focuses attention / concentration / improved selective attention
Approach behaviours
One way of learning a new skill is through operant conditioning which involves
reinforcement to strengthen the stimulus-response bond.
Use examples to distinguish between the different types of reinforcement.
Positive and negative reinforcement
(Punishment = wrong!)
Positive – Use of praise / rewards / self-satisfaction to encourage correct behaviour
Answers will invariably be positive = … and negative = … = 3 marks.
(Candidates who correctly identifies positive and punishment will only get 1 mark)
Negative – Removal of criticism / unpleasant stimulus to encourage desired response / eg coach stops shouting
Apart from reinforcement, how else could a coach make sure that operant conditioning is
likely to result in the successful learning of a new skill?
Use of punishment Correcting mistakes / equiv ‘Trial and error’ learning Key term Manipulating the environment to obtain desired response ‘Shaping’ Key term Eg use of target areas / feeders / equipment / etc;
When teaching new skills, coaches often implement the principles of Schmidt’s
Schema Theory.
Explain the functions of recognition schema.
Schema – set of ‘rules’ / relationships to help us make decisions about movement patterns.
Following / during movement / action.
Sensory consequences.
Required term
eg feedback information concerning performance /
Knowledge of performance
/ kinesthesis / intrinsic feedback / how it felt.
NOT KP
Response / movement outcome.
Required term
Comparison of actual and intended outcome / feedback / knowledge of results / what happened.
NOT KR
What implications does Schmidt’s Schema Theory have for the way in which sports skills
should be taught?
Vary practised conditions by changing initial conditions / appropriate example.
Realistic / specific practice to activity.
Build up set of response specifications / movement requirements / outcomes practised
eg weight of implement / flight of ball.
Frequent / lots feedback.
Teach fundamental / simple skills before sport specific skills.
Coaches will encourage performers to practise skills so that the skills can transfer to the
competitive situation.
Describe what is meant by the term transfer of learning and explain two different forms that
transfer can take.
Skills learnt in one activity affects / influence / impact / eq in another.
Sub max 1 mark – require clear definition of transfer which doesn’t include an example of transfer.
Accept ‘enhanced and worsens’.
Any examples must be about skills, NOT sports, and must be explained.
Positive – enhances / helps / aids the learning of a new skill / egs.
Not has positive affect
Negative – hinders learning of new skill.
Not has positive affect
Zero – has no effect on learning of new skill.
Not has zero affect
Retroactive – current practice enhances learning of previously learned skill.
Proactive – current practice enhances learning of skill yet to be learned.
Bilateral – practise on limb on one side of body improves other side.
Tennis players need to develop their skills so that they can become more effective.
As a tennis player moves from the early ‘stage of learning’ through to the final stage of learning,
the type of feedback they use will change.
(i) Name the early and the final stages of learning, and describe the characteristics of each.
Cognitive and autonomous stages.
Both terms needed and first two answers.
Cognitive – needs instruction / demonstration / forms mental / image /trying to understand / many errors.
Obtainable without named stages.
Autonomous – without conscious thought / able to focus on other factors – tactics / stress management.
Obtainable without named stages.
Describe how the ‘feedback’ that a tennis player uses will change between these two
stages of learning.
Feedback used is more:
No credit for cognitive phase descriptions
(mainly) intrinsic / kinaesthetic / correct own mistakes / proprioceptors;
Knowledge of performance (KP);
Accept opposites – less extrinsic; less KR; immediate;
terminal; positive; simple / general;
Can be delayed;
Concurrent / continuous;
Negative / critical;
Specific / detailed.
Suggest how a coach might help a performer to retain newly learned skills.
Frequent practises / rehearsals / over learning / massed practise / repeated.
Not just ‘practise’; must be a qualified practise.
Use of positive feedback.
(Not just ‘feedback’).
Reinforcement / to praise / motivate / rewards;
Highlight cues / verbal repetition of key learning points;
Emphasise need to feel correct movements / attend to kinesthesis;
Use of imagery / mental rehearsal / visualisation;
Transfer from previously learned skill;
Fun / enjoyable / realistic;
Associate with familiar information / chaining / chunking;
Make information relevant / meaningful.
explain how attention, motor production and motivation are used to help the
process of learning a skill.
Attention – learner is watching / performance is attractive / successful / demonstration can be seen / is accurate / create mental image.
Either performer watches or performance is worth watching.
Motor production – learner has the abilities / skills to complete the task / is able to practise immediately.
Is about performer’s abilities / skill levels.
Motivation – reinforcement / praise / sense of pride / sense of satisfaction / status of model.
Idea that performer wants to learn skill.
Explain the functions of ‘recall schema
Prior to performance;
Initiates / plan movement / equiv;
(Knowledge of) initial / environmental conditions.
essential terms
What can you see / hear / feel / what’s happening.
Accept relevant examples.
(Knowledge of) response specifications / response / movement demands.
essential terms:
What is expected / required / what should I do.
Accept relevant examples.
What do you understand by the term ‘intrinsic’ motivation?
The will / want / desire / drive to win / achieve success / equiv.
Stating the reverse, such as ‘it‘s not rewards’ is too vague.
That occurs within performer / equiv.
accept examples – self-satisfaction / personal pride / etc.
(ii) Explain the disadvantages of using ‘extrinsic’ motivation to motivate an individual.
(Excessive) extrinsic may damage / lead to loss of intrinsic motivation / love of the game / self satisfaction.
idea is too much extrinsic motivation is bad.
Become dependent on / loss of extrinsic motivation.
idea that extrinsic motivation controls you.
Excessive extrinsic motivation eventually loses its effect / becomes worthless;
Removal / failure to achieve extrinsic reward may lead to loss of motivation.
Not achieving enough for extrinsic motivation to work.
Too much pressure, leading to cheating.
Accept win at all costs.
How could a coach motivate a group of performers, of differing abilities, who regularly
practise together?
Distributed sessions / rest / recovery periods;
Resetting of goals / tasks more challenging;
Offering extrinsic rewards / encouragement / praise / positive reinforcement;
Increase motivation on own too vague.
accept rewards / prizes / etc
Using mental rehearsal / imagery / visualisation;
Provide feedback / visual guidance;
Competition against opposition;
Use of whole-part – whole / part method / breaking the skill down;
Ensure performer focuses on appropriate cues;
Make practices more varied / more interesting / fun / enjoyment;
Make performer fitter;
Better quality coaching / new coach / different teaching style.
What are the characteristics of an open loop control system?
Pre-planned / well learnt movement / without conscious control / stored as memory trace;
Once initiated no modification;
No feedback during movement / only after movement;
Very quick / limited time / ballistic movements;
Carried out in a stable / predictable environment / closed skills.
Explain why an open loop control system is not applicable to all types of skills
Too many stored movements required for memory capacity;
Not all environments are predictable or stable;
Cannot accommodate new or novel skills;
Cannot accommodate flexible movement pattern;
Not applicable to open skills.
Accept suitable examples
Many skills have time for feedback during performance / allows corrections.
Accept suitable examples.
The action of throwing can be transferred from one activity to another.
Describe what is meant by the term ‘positive transfer of learning’
Positive transfer – enhances / helps / aids the learning of a new skill / egs.
(Do not accept a positive effect.)
Name and explain three other forms of transfer of learning that can take place.
Negative – hinders learning of new skill.
Answers must involve skills, not sports.
Bilateral – skill transferred from one side to another / limb to limb;
Zero – no transfer;
Proactive – learned skill has affect on future skill;
Retroactive – learned being skill has affect on past skill.
How can a coach make sure that successful transfer of learning takes place
Coach makes performer aware of transfer potential / highlight elements of skill that are similar;
Identify elements that may hinder learning;
Ensure original task is well learnt / practice;
Planned progression;
Make practice sessions realistic / relevant to the competitive environment;
Eg practising against opposition / time / equiv;
Eliminate bad habits;
Performer is well motivated / confidence.
Describe how the type of feedback being used by a long jumper differs between the early
stage of learning and the final stage of learning.
Identified stages – cognitive and autonomous;
Cognitive / early –
(Sub max 2 marks)
Extrinsic / coach / augmented.
Not internal and not external.
Knowledge of Results / KR;
General / simple / basic / positive;
Immediate;
Terminal;
Receive intrinsic feedback / kinaesthetic but cannot use it;
Autonomous / final –
(Sub max 2 marks)
Intrinsic / kinaesthetic / correct own mistakes;
Knowledge of performance / KP;
Specific / detailed / critical / negative
Can be delayed;
Concurrent / continuous.
Explain the term ‘insight learning’ and suggest how this approach could have a positive
effect on learning to long jump.
Insight learning –
Involves cognitive processes / development.
Cognitive = key word.
Need to ‘think’.
Understanding the process to achieve the result / why / reasons you do things.
Understanding = key word.
Accept eureka moment.
Coach questions performer about why they’re performing in a particular way.
Experiences the ‘whole’ activity rather than skills in isolation.
Whole = key word.
Allows learners to develop their own strategies and / or routes of understanding;
Better for the performer rather than being told what to do all the time;
Must follow from the correct insight learning theory.
Performer able to adjust movements as required;
Improves motivation.
Name the four stages of Bandura’s observational model of learning. Using examples
explain how a coach may use this model to teach the correct technique for skills such as triple
jumping.
Attention, retention, motor production, motivation;
Attention – highlight the key areas of the skill / focus / concentrate;
Retention – performer able to remember information / keep mental image;
Motor (re)production – physically capable of performing skill;
Motivation – drive / desire / use of rewards / praise by coach.
What other factors should a coach consider for a demonstration to be effective
Perfect / accurate demonstration;
Frequent practices / rehearsals / over-learning;
Minimal delay between demonstration and practice;
Highlight cues / verbal repetition of key learning points;
Emphasise need to feel correct movements / attend to kinaesthesis;
Use of imagery / mental practice / rehearsal;
Transfer from previously learned skill;
Fun / enjoyable / relevant / realistic / interesting;
Demonstration by role model / significant other / similar age / ability;
Audience can see / hear;
(With complex skill) – use different angles / slo-mo / video / repeat demonstration.
Explain the meaning of the term ‘operant conditioning
Trial and error learning;
Successful response linked / associated with stimulus / strengthens S-R bond;
Use of reinforcement.
How can a coach use operant conditioning to develop a gymnast’s skills
Using rewards / praise;
Shaping / altering environment to progress towards success;
Use of target areas / mechanical feeders / equipment / etc;
Use of negative reinforcement;
Removal of criticism – explanation of negative reinforcement;
Use of punishment to decrease probability of undesired response;
Example of punishment.
One form of learning is through schema. ‘Schmidt’s schema theory’ (1975) is based on the
concept that every time athletes make a movement, they gather information from four sources.
Explain how athletes use these four sources of information to make a movement
Knowledge of initial conditions / environmental conditions – where am I?
Knowledge of response specifications / response demands – what is expected / required?
Sensory consequences / kinethesis / knowledge of performance / KP – how did it feel?
Movement / response outcomes / knowledge of results / KR – what happened?
Recall schema – prior to movement;
Recognition schema – during / following movement.
Explain the meaning of the term ‘motivation’.
The will / desire / drive / want to learn / achieve success / equiv;
Intrinsic – from within / self satisfaction;
Extrinsic – rewards;
Tangible – touchable / egs;
Non tangible – not physical / equiv.
How could a coach motivate a badminton player to improve
Make it fun / variation in training / more interesting (accept reverse – not boring);
Use reinforcement / praise / verbal encouragement / equiv;
Use of external rewards – certificates / prizes;
Allow success;
Alter environment to favour players / feel competent;
Positive feedback / eg;
Set more (demanding / achievable) goals / target / more competition;
Emphasise personal improvement;
Use role models.
In order to improve a badminton player’s performance, a coach may set goals.
Explain why these goals need to be realistic, specific and time-based.
Realistic – to maintain motivation / gain satisfaction / increase confidence by being achievable.
Specific – so performer has personalised goals / targets for an aspect of a sport / badminton.
Time-based – so target has to be reached quickly / not too drawn out / allows evaluation / reevaluation.
Springboard divers often train using trampolines. Explain how a coach can ensure that
practising on a trampoline assists the learning of skills in diving.
Positive transfer (of learning) / develop schema.
Make performer aware of transfer potential / highlight elements of skill that are similar.
Ensure original task is well learnt / practised.
Planned progression / part learning of skill / break skill down.
Make practice sessions realistic / relevant / same movements.
Eliminate bad habits.
Practising on trampoline is safer / reduce risk of injury.
Repeated practice more possible – aids reinforcement.
Only use if performer is well motivated / confident / avoid tedium.
Describe operant conditioning theory and give an example of how a diving coach may use it to
improve learning.
Eg – use of rewards / praise or removal of criticism to encourage learning / repeat successful performance / change behaviour.
(Sub max 1 mark)
Trial and error learning.
Strengthen S-R bond / successful response associated with stimulus.
Use of (positive / negative) reinforcement.
Shaping / altering environment to allow success.
