Learning and Memory Flashcards
Describe classical (Pavlovian) conditioning.
Give an example of an experiment that used classical (Pavlovian) conditioning.
Learning by association. For example:
- A neutral stimulus (causing no response) occurs at the same time as an unconditioned stimulus (one that naturally causes an unconditioned response).
- With repetition, the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned response.
- The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as it elicits the same unconditioned response on its own.
- E.g. Pavlov’s dog and Little Albert.
Describe operant (instrumental) conditioning.
Learning by association. For example:
- When a particular behaviour occurs, the behaviour is either reinforced (to increase / maintain the behaviour) or punished (to decrease the behaviour).
- If the reinforcement / punishment is positive, it involves adding a pleasant / aversive stimulus.
- If the reinforcement / punishment is negative, it involves removing a pleasant / aversive stimulus.
- E.g. Skinner experiments with cats (negative) and birds (positive).
What is the key similarity or difference between the operant and classical conditioning?
- They are similar in that they are both forms of associative learning.
- They differ in that classical (Pavlovian) conditioning creates stimulus-stimulus associations, whereas operant (instrumental) conditioning creates response-outcome associations.
Describe social (observational) learning.
Give an example of an experiment that used social (observational) learning.
- Learning by watching other people’s behaviour and its consequences.
- Learning occurs by imitation.
- E.g. bobo doll experiments.
Which neurones form the neurological basis for observational learning?
How do these neurones work?
Where are these neurones located?
- Mirror neurones.
- These neurones are the same neurones that fire when a behaviour is observed as when an individual performs the behaviour.
- They are mostly in the frontal and parietal cortices.
List the three stages of memory.
1 - Encoding.
2 - Storage.
3 - Retrieval.
Outline a model of memory.
1 - External stimulus.
2 - Sensory memory.
3 - Short-term memory.
4 - Long-term memory.
List 4 characteristics of short-term memory.
1 - Limited capacity (7+/-2 items).
2 - Short duration.
3 - Maintenance occurs via rehearsal.
4 - Forgetting occurs via displacement (a consequence of limited capacity).
List 4 characteristics of long-term memory.
1 - Unlimited capacity.
2 - Variable duration.
3 - Forgetting occurs via interference and / or decay (use it or lose it).
4 - Cues and context aid retrieval of information stored in the long-term memory.
List the 2 components of long term memory.
1 - Declarative memory (facts, data, events, etc.).
2 - Procedural memory (how to do things).
List the 2 components of declarative memory.
1 - Episodic memory (personal experiences).
2 - Semantic memory (general factual information).
What proportion of information do patients tend to remember after a consultation?
~50%.
List 2 factors that decrease the likelihood of a patient remembering information following a consultation.
1 - Anxiety.
2 - Old age.
List 4 causes of memory impairment.
1 - Diffuse brain diseases.
2 - Focal brain diseases.
3 - Physiological disturbances.
4 - Psychiatric illnesses.
Give an example of a diffuse brain disease that causes memory impairment.
Dementia.
Give an example of a focal brain disease that causes memory impairment.
Amnesia.
List 4 psychiatric illnesses that cause memory impairment.
1 - Schizophrenia.
2 - Depression.
3 - Anxiety.
4 - Dissociative disorders.
List the 2 types of amnesia.
What is the difference between the 2 types?
1 - Retrograde amnesia.
2 - Anterograde amnesia.
- Retrograde amnesia is where memory of events prior to brain damage is impaired.
- Anterograde amnesia is where memory of events after brain damage occurs is impaired.
List 8 structures of the brain that play a role in memory.
1 - Mediodorsal nucleus.
2 - Basal forebrain.
3 - Prefrontal cortex.
4 - Amygdala.
5 - Rhinal cortex.
6 - Hippocampus.
7 - Inferotemporal cortex.
8 - Cerebellum.
Where is the rhinal cortex?
On the medial surface of the temporal lobe.
Describe the case of Henry Molaison.
- Underwent an experimental operation on his brain to cure his epilepsy.
- During the surgery, the hippocampus was removed.
- He then woke up with anterograde amnesia.
List 3 symptoms of anterograde amnesia.
1 - Difficulty learning new information.
2 - Disorientation.
3 - Confusion.
