Learning and memory

Question 1

What is flashbulb memory?

Answer 1

The phenomenon of vivid memories of important, stressful events
- a class of memories that are more frequently rehearsed or more strongly encoded

Question 2

What are the components of learning and memory and how do hormones play into it?

Answer 2

• Entering information into storage
• retaining the information
• retrieving the information
  Hormones can affect each of these components, or they can affect learning directly and thus memory indirectly
• Role for psychological components, as well: motivation, attention, arousal

Question 3

How does arousal affect learning?

Answer 3

If it is too low, performance is not as good
If it is too high, performance is also not as good
There is a sweet spot in the middle that helps to create optimal learning performance

Question 4

What is learning?

Answer 4

A process that expresses itself as an adaptive change in behavior in response to experience
- the stages of learning include: acquisition, consolidation, retrieval and extinction

Question 5

What is memory?

Answer 5

The encoding, storage and retrieval (or forgetting) of information about past experience–is necessary if learning is to take place

Question 6

What are the two types of non-associative learning?

Answer 6

Sensitization (results in progressive amplification of a response after multiple exposures)
Habituation (reduces a response after repeated exposures)

Question 7

What is non-associative learning?

Answer 7

The change in the strength of a response after repeated exposures
All animals appear to be capable of changing their behavior as a result of experience

Question 8

What is associative learning?

Answer 8

Learning about relationships, or the process by. which an association between two stimuli is established

Question 9

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 9

Not-purposefully paired stimuli–unconscious relations between stimuli and reaction

Question 10

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 10

Purposefully exhibiting behavior for a response –> nose poke for door to open

Question 11

What is active avoidance?

Answer 11

Animal learns to move to other side to avoid shock when it hears the sound

Question 12

What is passive avoidance?

Answer 12

Cage is lit on one side with an electrified grid on the other:
Animal would rather not be in the light, but they also have to avoid shock–> refrain from going to “comfort” bc of shock

Question 13

What is fear conditioning?

Answer 13

Can be used to test for effects of hormones on learning and memory (learned quickly and remembered for a long time)

Question 14

What is extinction in learning and memory?

Answer 14

(different from forgetting)
This is when an individual stops responding to a stimulus following a series of non-reinforced experiences or trials
(Keep playing just the tone and not shocking –> learn that the tone is no longer associated with a shock so don’t need response anymore)

Question 15

How does memory affect behaviors?

Answer 15

Memory is required in order for adaptive changes in behavior to result from experience
- testing memory tests for the permanence of learning

Question 16

What are different types of memory?

Answer 16

Short-term memory persists for seconds to minutes
Rehearsing moves items from short-term to long-term memory

Question 17

Describe the taxonomy of memory

Answer 17

Long-term memory can become either
-declarative (explicit): episodic or semantic
-procedural (implicit): skill learning, priming, or conditioning

Question 18

How does epinephrine effect learning and memory?

Answer 18

enhances memory in a dose- and time-dependent way
- the mechanism for enhancing memory isn’t clear
- could be affecting the encoding or storing processes since those happen rather quickly
- does not easily pass the blood-brain barrier
1. it could be activating peripheral receptors that directly influence brain function
2. It could affect memory via its effect on blood glucose levels

Question 19

How does insulin affect learning and memory?

Answer 19

• There is a strong relationship between glucose regulation and cognitive impairment; some cognitive impairments have been seen in diabetics (with more severe issues in aged patients)
• Even in healthy individuals, dysregulated glucose metabolism (which happens with age) can affect memory

Question 20

What are the effects of glucose on learning?

Answer 20

Similar to arousal, there is a sweet spot where too low is not enough and too high is too much

Question 21

How does insulin relate to Alzheimer’s Disease?

Answer 21

Impaired insulin signaling has been proposed as an important factor in the development of Alzheimer’s Disease
- Abnormal insulin levels and low brain insulin receptors are common in Alzheimer’s patients with severe memory impairments
- Treatment of these patients with insulin significantly improves memory, which may be aiding in neural transmission

Question 22

How does insulin affect learning and memory in animal models?

Answer 22

using animal models has shown that disruption of brain insulin receptors in mice impairs memory
- treating animals with streptozotocin destroys insulin-secreting B-cells of the pancreas, rendering the animal diabetic
- These animals do significantly worse in passive avoidance learning and Morris water maze

Question 23

How do Glucocorticoids affect learning and memory?

Answer 23

• Similar to stressful events, administering glucocorticoids to people (acute stress) enhances memory consolidation
• Acute stress impairs memory retrieval in a water maze
• Chronic stress impairs the acquisition of spatial learning as well as the memory (long-term storage) for a radial arm maze

Question 24

What are some sex differences in learning and memory?

Answer 24

In general, female rats learn active avoidance tasks faster than males, but males do better with passive avoidance
- could just reflect differences in general activity levels
- males are less active in open field so “easier” for them to inhibit movement?
- Indeed, the increases errors when females do mazes is sometimes attributed to increased exploratory behavior and not to poor L&M

Question 25

What are spatial memory sex differences?

Answer 25

• Spatial ability: males can be better with the learning of the maze, but they are equal upon recall/memory
• Sometimes its not that males or females are better or worse, but that they use different strategies to solve the mazes
  
  • Landmark versus global cues
• Organization effects of hormones are a strong contributing factor

Question 26

What are sex differences in the affect of stress on memory?

Answer 26

Generally, acute stressors increase performance for both; long-term impairs male performance but sometimes doesn’t affect or even improves female performance

Question 27

What are the effects of estrogens on learning and memory?

Answer 27

• Estradiol enhances several aspects of L&M in both human and nonhuman animals, and enhances spatial memory
• Estradiol’s effect is transient, and can be seen across an estrous cycle in female rats
  
  • for ex: female rats perform better during the cycle when estradiol is high compared to when its low
  • These rapid effects can be seen in increased spine density in the CA1 region of the hippocampus

Question 28

What are the effects of testosterone on learning and memory?

Answer 28

Gonadal androgens have an effect on L&M through organizational effects, but don’t appear to have any activational effects on L&M