Learning Flashcards
Definition of learning
a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s capacity for behaviour.
what is Behaviourism
- Assumes that there are laws of learning that apply to virtually all organisms
- Learning is explained solely in terms of directly observable events; avoids speculating about an organism’s unobservable mental state (cognitions, emotions, thoughts and reflections)
species adaptation
environmental conditions faced by each species help shape that species’ biology
Natural Selection
genetically based characteristics that enhance a species’ ability to adapt to its environment, and thus to survive and reproduce, are more likely to be passed to the next generation
Personal Adaptation:
how an organism’s behaviour changes in response to environmental stimuli encountered during its lifetime
Habituation
A decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus (one that doesn’t change and isn’t problematic for our survival) – you learn not to respond to that stimulus.
Learning not to respond to an event that occurs frequently
Allows organisms to conserve energy & attend to other important stimuli.
Contrasts with sensitization – an increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.
Classical Conditioning
A process in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that one stimulus comes to elicit a response that originally was elicited only by the other stimulus
Process of association to make predictions.
Numerous examples:
• food and sickness
• music and nostalgia
Pavlov’s Serendipitous Discovery
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning while studying the digestive system of dogs.
Initially he was studying the neural mechanisms controlling glandular secretions during digestion.
Gave food to the dog and collected the saliva.
After several sessions the dogs began salivating before they had been fed, usually when they saw the lab assistant who fed them.
Suggests a form of learning where one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another.
Lab assistant predicts -> food
He later investigated this further
Pavlov would sound a bell just before the dog would get some food
Then he would place some food into the dog’s mouth
After about 12 pairings the dog would salivate when the bell was rung (despite there being no food presented to the dogs)
Before conditioning:
Food UCS -> Salivation UR
Sound CS -> Head turn, no salivation
Conditioning:
Sound CS + Food UCS -> UR
After conditioning:
Sound CS -> Salivating CR
Forward short-delay pairing:
CS appears first and still present when UCS appears
Forward trace pairing:
CS appears, then disappears, and then UCS is presented 2-3 seconds later
Simultaneous pairing
CS and UCS are presented at the same time
Backward pairing
CS is presented after the UCS
what do different timed pairings do
strengthen the conditioning
classical conditioning strongest when
– There are repeated CS-UCS pairings
– The UCS is more intense (in this case particularly intense stimuli could possibly cause conditioning in just one pairing)
– The sequence involves forward pairing
– The time interval between the CS & UCS is short
Extinction:
a process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken & eventually disappear – the relationship weakens and then disappears
Spontaneous Recovery:
the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period & without new learning trials
Stimulus Generalisation:
stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR
– E.g. salivation may be elicited by a similar tone
Discrimination:
a CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not others
– E.g. salivation may not be elicited by a much higher or lower tone
Higher-Order Conditioning
Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS
Acquiring & Overcoming Fear
Watson decided to investigate fear with Rosalie Rayner
An 11-month old infant boy was allowed to play with a white rat (NS – neutral stimulus).
When a steel bar was hit with a hammer just behind the infant’s head, he became very distressed (UCS).
The noise was paired with the rat & Albert became fearful (CR) of rats (CS).
The fear generalised to a number of other objects, including:
i. A rabbit
ii. A dog
iii. A Santa Claus mask
Ethically dubious, the learning was not reversed & ambiguous results.
Exposure Therapies:
a patient is exposed to a stimulus (CS) that arouses an anxiety response without the presence of a UCS, allowing extinction to occur
– Systematic Desensitisation:
: an example of an exposure therapy in which patients learn muscle-relaxation techniques & then are gradually exposed to the fear-provoking stimuli
Aversion Therapy:
attempts to condition an aversion to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behaviour by pairing it with a noxious (harmful/toxic) UCS
operant conditioning
Operant conditioning tells us about the relations between stimuli and our own behaviour
The basic principles:
• When an action has good consequence it will be repeated
• When an action has bad consequences it tends not to be repeated
The law of effect
Edward Thorndike: the first to develop the principles of operant conditioning (or instrumental learning)
The animal could escape and eat when it operated the lever
The cat would eventually open the box
After several trials the cat would quickly open the box.
The cat learnt to open the box because it led to a favourable outcome
The occurrence of the favourable outcome strengthens the response that produced it…
This is called the law of effect
Experiments using hungry cats in puzzle boxes
Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Frederic Skinner built on & expanded Thorndike’s work
Operant Conditioning: a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it.
He developed what became known as the Skinner box
Above is a picture of a Skinner box
Pressing on a lever will occasionally release a pellet of food
The box keeps a record of each response.
Reinforcement
a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it
Reinforcer:
the outcome (a stimulus or event) that increases the frequency of a response, e.g. food
Punishment
a response is weakened by an outcome that follows it
Punisher
a consequence that weakens (decreases) the frequency of a response, e.g. electric shock
Three-part contingency
Operant behaviour involves three kinds of events that form a three-part contingency:
A: antecedents of behaviour
B: behaviour
C: consequences that follow behaviour
If A is present, and B is emitted, then C will occur
Differences between CC & OC
Classical: Behaviour changes are due to the association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR)
• Focuses on elicited behaviours
Operant: Behaviour changes as the result of the consequences that follow it (reinforcement or punishment)
• Focuses on emitted behaviours
Discriminative Stimulus:
a signal that a particular response will now produce certain consequences, something that indicates that something is likely to happen (e.g. light in the Skinner box).
Positive Reinforcement
occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus e.g. being given food
– Primary Reinforcers
stimuli that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, e.g. eating makes us less hungry
– Secondary Reinforcers:
stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers, e.g. money – you need money to get the food.
Negative Reinforcement
occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus, e.g. – Negative Reinforcer: the aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided, e.g.
“Positive” & “Negative” refer to presentation or removal of a stimulus, not “good” or “bad”.
Operant Extinction
weakening & eventual disappearance of a response because it’s no longer reinforced, e.g. rat pressing the lever for food but no food being given will result in the rat not pressing the lever any more
– Resistance to Extinction: the degree to which non-reinforced responses persist e.g. gambling
Aversive / Positive Punishment
occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus, something is done to you to prevent you repeating that behaviour that may be negative or harmful.
Negative Punishment / Response Cost
occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus, something is taken away e.g. taking away pocket money
Problems with punishment
- Doesn’t tell the person what they should do instead (alternative behaviour), just that they shouldn’t do it.
- Can lead to problems with the relationship of the person giving the punishment
- Only effective if it is combined with educational background – needs to be carried out in a correct environment.
Shaping
Skinner developed a technique to teach new behaviours to his subjects. – E.g. reward rat for facing lever
Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations towards the desired response. – E.g. reward rat for being closer to the lever but after a while only reward more refined behaviour.
Something like shaping occurs with children learning at school.
