Learning Flashcards
Define learning.
“Learning is an enduring change in behaviour, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Schunk, 2012)
What are the 3 characteristics of “learning”?
1) Enduring
2) Observable in behaviour
- learning can be demonstrated by the absence of a behaviour
- learning can be demonstrated after a delay
- learning is only demonstrated when there is sufficient motivation
3) Results from experience
- tho not all behaviour change is due to learning
Describe “simple learning”.
Learning that occur with a single stimulus if it is repeated.
What are the 2 types of simple learning?
Habituation, sensitisation.
Can the 2 types of simple learning, habituation and sensitisation change in strength? And why?
Yes, because of the repeated presentations of a single stimulus, these behaviour changes tend to be temporary.
Define habituation.
The decrease in the strength of an elicited behaviour following repeated presentations of the stimulus that naturally elicits that response.
What is the condition of habituation to occur?
Habituation is only considered to have occurred if the organism still has the capacity to respond.
Why habituation is important for us?
Helps us direct our limited attention to things that are important.
Define sensitisation.
Sensitisation is the increase in the strength of an elicited response following repeated presentations of the stimulus that naturally elicits that response.
Why is sensitisation important?
Ensures we keep our attention on stimuli that might be dangerous.
What make sensitisation more likely to occur?
When the organism’s arousal levels are high.
Define classical conditioning.
The phenomenon whereby an initially
neutral stimulus comes to elicit a new response because it has been paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response
What are the 4 main parameters in classical conditioning?
1) unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
2) unconditioned response (UCR)
3) conditioned stimulus (CS)
4) conditioned response (CR)
What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
The stimulus that naturally elicits the response before conditioning occurs.
What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?
The innate response that is elicited by the UCS (conditioning is not necessary for this response to occur)
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
An initially neutral stimulus that begins to elicit a new response after it is paired with the UCS.
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
The response that is elicited by the CS after classical conditioning has occurred.
Can all sorts of behaviour classically conditioned? Give some examples.
Yes. Reflexes, taste aversion, emotional responses.
What does “acquisition” mean in classical conditioning?
The gradual learning of a conditioned response that occurs when the CS and UCS are paired together.
What does “extinction” mean in classical conditioning?
Extinction is the gradual weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is no longer presented with the UCS.
Eventually with enough extinction trials, the CS will not elicit a conditioned response anymore.
What does “spontaneous recovery” mean in classical conditioning?
Spontaneous recovery is the re-emergence of the conditioned response after successful extinction when the CS is encountered after a delay.
Does “extinction” erase the original “acquisition” learning in classical conditioning? What does it actually do?
No, it creates a new learning which suppresses the acquisition learning.
What does “generalisation” mean in classical conditioning?
The conditioned response is not specific to the CS that was used during conditioning. It can also be elicited by similar stimuli to CS, and is adaptive.
The more similar the stimulus to the CS, the more conditioned response will generalise.
What does “discrimination” mean in classical conditioning?
“The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another” (Powell et al., 2017)
How can “discrimination” be trained in classical conditioning?
If a 1000 Hz tone is always followed by food and an 800 Hz tone is never followed by food, an animal will learn to salivate only to the 1000 Hz tone
What are the 5 factors influencing conditioning?
1) timing
2) predictability
3) novelty
4) salience
Describe how “timing” influence conditioning.
Classical conditioning works best when the CS is presented before the UCS and when the CS and the UCS are close together in time.
Describe how “predictability” influence conditioning.
The CS must provide the organism with information on whether the UCS is likely to occur.
Describe how “novelty” influence conditioning.
Conditioning works best when the CS is novel.
Describe how “salience” influence conditioning.
Conditioning works best when the CS is noticeable but not overpowering.
What does exposure therapy treat? How does it do it?
Fear. It involves exposing the person to the object of their fear so that they can learn it can be encountered safely.
What stage of classical conditioning does exposure therapy based on?
Extinction. Relapse rates are high because extinction is a learned suppression of the original acquisition learning.
What is the other name of operant conditioning?
Instrumental conditioning.
Define operant conditioning.
Occurs when behaviours are shaped
by their consequences. It is a type of
learning in which the future
probability of a behaviour is affected
by its consequences.
What is the law of effect of operant conditioning?
Behaviours that lead to a “satisfying state of affairs” are strengthened or “stamped in”, while behaviours that lead to an “unsatisfying state of affairs” are weakened or “stamped out”
What do reinforcement and punishment do to behaviour in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement = increases behaviour
Punishment = decreases behaviour
What are some examples of operant behaviour?
Cooking behaviour, studying behaviour. Usually come as a ‘class’ of behaviours and not all from the same category.
In operant conditioning, if a consequence increases the future probability of the behaviour, the consequence is a _____________, the process is known as ______________.
Reinforcer, reinforcement
In operant conditioning, if a consequence decreases the future probability of the behaviour, the consequence is a _____________, the process is known as ______________
Punisher, punishment
Operant conditioning: fill in the blanks.
From left to right:
Positive, negative, positive, negative.
What are some examples of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?
- Complete homework > receive praise > complete homework more often
- Complete shift at work > get paid > work shifts more often
What are some examples of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?
- Take painkiller > headache goes away > take painkillers more often
- Open umbrella > escape from the rain > open umbrellas more often
Describe positive reinforcement in operant conditioning.
The presentation of a pleasant stimulus following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength of that response.
Describe negative reinforcement in operant conditioning.
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus
following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength of that response.
What are some examples of positive punishment in operant conditioning?
- Swat at wasp > get stung > swat at wasps less often
- Meow constantly > get sprayed with water > meow less often
What are some examples of negative punishment in operant conditioning?
- Tease sister > get sent to room (lose social contact) > tease sister less often
- Stay out late > lose car privileges > stay out late less often
Describe positive punishment in operant conditioning.
The presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a response, which then leads
to a decrease in the future strength of that response.
Describe negative punishment in operant conditioning.
The removal of a pleasant stimulus following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response.
In operant conditioning, if the consequence is strengthening the behaviour, is it a reinforcement or punishment?
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, if the consequence is weakening the behaviour, is it a reinforcement or punishment?
Punishment
In operant conditioning, if the consequence consist of something being added to the situation, is it positive or negative.
Positive.
In operant conditioning, if the consequence consist of something being taken away from the situation, is it positive or negative.
Negative
Describe “acquisition” in operant conditioning.
The gradual strengthening of the frequency of an operant behaviour when it is followed by the consequence.
Describe “extinction” in operant conditioning.
The gradual weakening of the frequency of the operant response when it is no longer followed by the consequence.
Describe “spontaneous recovery” in operant conditioning.
The re-emergence of a previously
extinguished response after a delay.
What is “shaping” use for our behaviour?
Reinforce a behaviour that is
infrequent or does not occur at all.
What are primary reinforcers? Give some examples.
Things we find naturally or innately reinforcing. Requires no training to be effective as a reinforcer. E.g. food, water, sex
What are secondary reinforcers? Give some examples.
Things that have become reinforcing because they have been associated with a primary reinforcer. Requires training to be an effective reinforcer
For example: Money, good grades
What do generalisation and discrimination mean in learning?
Generalisation = Perform the same behaviour in new similar situations.
Discrimination = Occurs when we perform
a behaviour in some circumstances and not others
What are the 2 factors affecting operant conditioning?
1) timing
2) magnitude of the reinforcer/punisher
How does “timing” affect operant conditioning?
- Consequence should follow the behaviour
immediately - If there is a delay another behaviour can be
accidentally punished/reinforced
How does “magnitude of the reinforcer/punisher” affects operant conditioning?
In general, bigger rewards/punishers have more
powerful impacts on behaviour.
What are the 2 types of schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning? Do they have the same effects on the behaviour?
1) continuous reinforcement schedule
2) partial reinforcement schedules
Different schedules have different effects on the behaviour.
In operant conditioning, what does continuous reinforcement schedule mean?
Behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs
In operant conditioning, what does partial reinforcement schedule mean?
Only some responses are reinforced
What are the 2 broad categories of the schedules of reinforcement, in terms of the timing the reinforcement is applied?
1) Ratio schedules
2) Interval schedules
What is “ratio schedules” of reinforcement in operant conditioning, what does it depend on?
Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made.
What are the 2 types of ratio schedule in operant conditioning?
1) Fixed ratio schedule
2) Variable ratio schedule
What is “interval schedules” of reinforcement in operant conditioning, what does it depend on?
Reinforcement is given for the first
response made after an interval of time has passed.
What are the 2 types of interval schedule in operant conditioning?
1) fixed interval schedule
2) variable interval schedule
What does “fixed ratio schedule” mean, in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of
responses that is always the same (i.e., every nth response)
What does “variable ratio schedule” mean, in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses that varies (but centres around an average)
What does “variable interval schedule” mean, in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement occurs after the first response made after a variable time period has passed (the exact amount of time differs but centres around an average)
What does “fixed interval schedule” mean, in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a fixed time period has passed (that is always the same)
How are the typical response patterns like for the different schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning?
When you are adding a stimulus in operant conditioning, regardless it is pleasant or not, it is always _____________
Positive
When you are removing a stimulus in operant conditioning, regardless it is pleasant or not, it is always _____________
Negative
When a pleasant stimulus is being added, is it a punishment? No. So what it is?
Reinforcement
When a pleasant stimulus is being remove, you don’t like it, so what it is?
Punishment
When an aversive stimulus is being added, you don’t like it, so what it is?
Punishment
When an aversive stimulus is being removed, is it a punishment? No. So what it is?
Reinforcement.
What is intermittent reinforcement?
the delivery of a reward at irregular intervals. Requires great effort hence demotivate people from trying to do it.
How can punishment works the best?
The punisher identifies more appropriate behaviour.
