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Psychology GRE > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

The relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as the result of experience.

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2
Q

Theory of Association

A

Kurt Lewin; grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. Organisms associate certain behaviors/cues with certain rewards/situations.

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3
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Pavlov; teaching an organism to respond to a neutral stimulus by pairing it with another stimulus. EX dogs.

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4
Q

Watson

A

founded school of behaviorism; believed everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains by means of conditioning. Only value on objective/observable elements.

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5
Q

Skinner

A

Proved Thorndike’s Law of Effect/Watson’s theories; developed concepts of operant conditioning to show that behavior is shaped by reinforcement.

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6
Q

Law of Effect

A

Thorndike; proposes cause/effect chain of behavior around reinforcement.

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7
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A

A stimulus that does not produce a specific response on its own (ex. Pavlov–>bells)

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8
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A

non-neutral stimulus. (ex. Pavlov–>food)

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9
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

The neutral stimulus once it is paired with the UCS to elicit a response.

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10
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

Naturally occurring response to the UCS. (ex. Pavlov–>salivation in response to food)

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11
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

Response that the CS elicits after conditioning. (Same as UCR, but in response to different stimulus).

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12
Q

Simultaneous Conditioning

A

UCS and CS presented at same time.

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13
Q

Higher Order/Second Order Conditioning

A

Conditioning technique in which a previous CS acts as a UCS. (Ex. pairing Pavlov’s bells with another stimulus)

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14
Q

Forward Conditioning

A

CS is presented before the UCS

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15
Q

Delayed Conditioning

A

Type of forward conditioning; presentation of CS begins before that of UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented.

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16
Q

Trace Conditioning

A

Type of forward conditioning; CS is presented and terminated before the UCS is presented.

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17
Q

Backward Conditioning

A

CS is presented after UCS is presented. Ineffective.

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18
Q

Instrumental Conditioning

A

Operant conditioning

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19
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Influencing a response through reinforcement strategies–ex Skinner Box

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20
Q

Shaping

A

Gradually training an organism to produce a desired response by reinforcing any responses similar to the desired response

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21
Q

Differential reinforcement of successive approximations

A

Shaping

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22
Q

Primary Reinforcement

A

A natural reinforcement; something that is reinforcing on its own without requiring learning (eg food/water)

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23
Q

Secondary Reinforcement

A

A learned reinforcer; eg money, prestige, awards. Usually learned from society

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24
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Positive event that increases the likelihood of a particular response. Ex-giving a dog a treat for completing a behavior

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25
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement through the removal of a negative event (still increases desired behavior). Ex. stopping a continuous shock when a monkey rides a tricycle.

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26
Q

Punishment

A

Promotes extinction of an undesirable behavior by adding a negative stimulus when the unwanted behavior is performed.

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27
Q

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

A

Every correct response is met with reinforcement. Leads to quickest learning, but learned behavior is quickly discontinued when reinforcement fails to occur.

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28
Q

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A

Reinforcement is delivered after a consistent number of responses. Vulnerable to extinction when rewards stop coming as scheduled.

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29
Q

Variable ratio schedule

A

Reinforcement is delivered after a random number of responses. Learning is slow but with lowest rate of extinction.

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30
Q

Fixed interval schedule

A

Reinforcement is delivered after a certain period of time passes, regardless of number of correct responses. Not necessarily a good motivator.

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31
Q

Variable interval schedule

A

Reinforcement is delivered after random time periods. Second most effective strategy. Ex. waiting for bus.

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32
Q

Token Economy

A

artificial mini-economy with motiviation occuring by means of secondary reinforcers. Ex. ticket exchange at Western Psych

33
Q

Primary/Instinctual drives

A

Hunger, thirst, etc

34
Q

Secondary/acquired drives

A

ex. money

35
Q

Exploratory drive

A

Theorized. Motivation to try something new/explore environment.

36
Q

Congruity Theory

A

if there are two contradicting people, sets of information, or concepts on which a judgment must be made by a single observer, the observer will experience pressure to change his or her judgment on one of the sides. However, if the two sets of information are similar or congruent, then there will be no problem, and the observer will not experience pressure of any form.

37
Q

Performance = Drive x Habit

A

Clark Hull; individuals are first motivated by drive, and then act according to old successful habits.

38
Q

Expectancy Value Theory

A

Edward Tolman; people are motivated by goals that they think they might meet.

39
Q

Need for achievement (nAch)

A

Studied by Murray and McClelland. May manifest in need to pursue success or avoid failure.

40
Q

Approach-avoidance conflict

A

Neil Miller; state one feels when a certain goal has both pros and cons. The closer one is to the goal, the more one focuses on the cons, and the further, on the pros.

41
Q

Hedonism

A

theory that individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain.

42
Q

Premack principle

A

idea that people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterwards with something they like to do.

43
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Effect

A

Medium level of arousal usually optimal for performance; for simple tasks high arousal is ideal, and low arousal is ideal for complex tasks (too much may cause the individual to become too anxious)

44
Q

Stimulus

A

any event that an organism reacts to.

45
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

the ability to discriminate between different but similar stimuli

46
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

to make the same response to a group of similar stimuli

47
Q

Undergeneralization

A

the failure to generalize a stimulus

48
Q

Response learning

A

form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses/learning what to do in response to particular triggers, ex. leaving a building in response to a fire alarm.

49
Q

Perceptual/concept learning

A

learning about something in general. Ex. learning about history rather than a response

50
Q

Aversive conditioning

A

uses punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

51
Q

Avoidance conditioning

A

teaches an organism how to avoid something it does not want

52
Q

Escape conditioning

A

teaches an organism to perform a desired behavior to get away from a negative stimulus.

53
Q

Autonomic conditioning

A

Evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training

54
Q

State dependent learning

A

What a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state.

55
Q

Extinction

A

Reverse of conditioning; encouraging an organism to stop doing a particular behavior, generally by withholding reinforcement or by disassociating the behavior from a particular clue.

56
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

Reappearance of an extinguished response, even in the absence of further conditioning

57
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that takes place without reinforcement. Ex. watching someone pay chess and later being able to play.

58
Q

Incidental learning

A

Unrelated items are grouped together–ex pets that learn to dislike riding in cars because they associate doing so with going to the vet

59
Q

Superstitious Behavior

A

Someone “learns” that a specific action caused an event, but the two are unrelated. Ex. “lucky shirts”

60
Q

Chaining

A

act of linking together a series of behaviors that ultimately result in reinforcement (one behavior triggers the next). ex. learning the alphabet

61
Q

Habituation

A

The decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity with the stimulus.

62
Q

Sensitization

A

increased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus

63
Q

Overshadowing

A

classical conditioning concept referring to an animal’s inability to infer a relationship between a particular stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus.

64
Q

Autoshaping

A

experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors such as bar pressing or key pecking

65
Q

Social learning theory

A

individuals learn through their culture what is acceptable/unacceptable behaviors

66
Q

Observational learning

A

learning by watching

67
Q

Modeling

A

Learning and behaving by imitating others (Bobo doll, Bandura)

68
Q

Preparedness

A

The concept that certain associations are learned more easily than others

69
Q

Garcia effect

A

Strong connection formed by animals between food/drink and nausea. Ex. when humans become sick from eating a particular food and are never able to eat it again.

70
Q

Continuous vs Discrete Motor Tasks

A

Continuous task continues naturally once started (riding a bike); discrete task is divided into different parts that do not facilitate the recall of each other (ex. setting up a chess board)

71
Q

Positive transfer

A

previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later

72
Q

Negative transfer

A

previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn another task

73
Q

Age and learning

A

Humans are primed to learn between 3 and 20. Between 20 and 50, ability to learn is consistent. After 50, ability to learn drops.

74
Q

Learning curve

A

When learning something new, the rate of learning usually changes over time. Ex. when learning a language someone may quickly learn vocab and basic sentence structure, but rate of learning decreases when they encounter complex constructions

75
Q

Thorndike

A

wrote the first educational psychology textbook in 1903

76
Q

Aptitude

A

set of characteristics that are indicative of a person’s ability to learn

77
Q

Cooperative learning

A

involves students working together on a project in small groups

78
Q

Scaffolding learning

A

occurs when a teacher encourages a student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics beyond the student’s capability.

Psychology GRE (5 decks)

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