Leadership Terms And Definitions Flashcards
Learning all leadership terms and their definitions.
1
Q
A person’s perceived ration of inputs and outcomes, as compared to his/hers perception of another person’s ration of inputs and outcomes.
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Comparison Ratio
2
Q
Motivational theory which assumes that people value fair treatment when comparing themselves with others, and that the perception of inequity motivates people to take action.
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Equity Theory
3
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The organizational leader who directly supervises, manages, and leads the employees involved in a given situation of case study.
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Focal Leader
4
Q
Any individual who perceives equity or inequity by comparing himself/herself with others.
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Focal Person
5
Q
Exists when someone perceives that the ratio of his/her outcomes to inputs is not equal to the ratio of someone else’s outcomes to inputs.
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Inequity
6
Q
In the employee-employer exchange, this is what the focal person perceives are his contributions to the exchange, for which he expects a just return. Some examples include work effort, experience, education, training, and intelligence.
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Inputs
7
Q
Theory dealing with perceptions of fairness in organizations
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Organizational Justice Theory
8
Q
In the employee-employer exchange, this is what the employee perceives are the rewards he receives for his services. Examples include pay, benefits, praise, and promotion.
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Outcomes
9
Q
The study of human interaction, including the study of attraction, attitude formation, influence (of which leadership is a part), and group dynamics.
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Social Psychology
10
Q
The tendency to attribute one’s own successes to one’s abilities, and to blame failures on external factors beyond one’s control
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Self Serving Bias
11
Q
The tendency for a leader to punish a follower more severely if the follower’s behavior has negative consequences.
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Negative Outcome Bias
12
Q
The process of assigning blame or credit for a person’s behavior (including one’s own behavior) to that person’s abilities or lack of abilities.
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Internal Attribution
13
Q
The tendency to overvalue internal factors in explaining someone’s behavior, while undervaluing external factors
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Fundamental Attribution Error
14
Q
The process of assigning blame or credit for a person’s behavior (including one’s own behavior) to external factors beyond the person’s abilities or lack of abilities.
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External Attribution
15
Q
The process of making an attribution about a person based on how well (or poorly) he/she does on a variety of different tasks.
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Distinctiveness
16
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The process of making an attribution based on how a person performed the same task on other occasions.
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Consistency
17
Q
The process of making an attribution based on how other people perform a specific task
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Consensus
18
Q
The process of making inferences and judgment’s about the cause of people’s behavior
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Attribution
19
Q
The leader’s tendency to be less likely to punish the follower who says he/she is sorry for his/her behavior
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Apology Effect
20
Q
The common tendency for the actor in a particular situation to blame external factors for his or her unsuccessful behavior while, concurrently, an observer tends to blame internal factors for same behavior
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Actor/observer Bias
21
Q
What people do or say. It is related to but not the same as what one thinks, how one feels, one’s underlying attitude, or overall performance in accomplishing tasks.
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Behavior
22
Q
That which typically results in unsuccessful task accomplishment.
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Off Task Behavior
23
Q
That which typically results in successful task accomplishment
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On task behavior
24
Q
Anything that follows a behavior (e.g. a person sticks his finger into a light socket and gets shocked.
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Consequence
25
When reinforcement follows every correct or desired behavior. This results in the quick learning of new behavior, but poor sustained behavior when the reinforcement is removed.
Continuous Reinforcement schedule
26
A collection of three theories that, in different ways, explain how consequences that follow behavior control that behavior. The theories are operant conditioning, observation learning (aka social or vicarious learning), and self-regulation.
Motivation Through Consequence (MTC)
27
A theoretical model originating from psychologist B.F. Skinner that has changed over time. In this lesson it means “punishment”, Skinner’s original definition.
Negative Reinforcement
28
(aka vicarious learning and social learning): A method of learning by watching the behavior of others and the associated consequences. Includes concepts such as vicarious extinction-vicarious learning, vicarious punishment, and vicarious reinforcement.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: (aka vicarious learning and social learning)
29
An approach to learning and motivation based on the relationship between person’s behavior and the consequences they subsequently personally experience.
Operant Conditioning
30
Any behavioral reaction that someone undertakes voluntarily in response to a demand or cue from his/her environment.
Operant Response
31
When reinforcements are administered irregularly by either time or by the number of correct or desired responses. This sustains behavior over long periods of time, as compared to continuous reinforcement.
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
32
(from operant conditioning) the effect of increasing the future, desired behavior by the presentation of a positive or pleasant consequence following current behavior
Positive reinforcement (reward contingency)
33
Any consequence that increases the occurrence of a behavior in the future.
Reinforcement
34
the effect of increasing the future, desired behavior by the presentation of a positive or pleasant consequence following current behavior
Reward Contingency same as Positive Reinforcement
35
The process of controlling one’s own behavior by comparing one’s behavior to one’s personal standards and subsequently apply internal consequences.
Self-Regulation
36
Involves learning by comparing oneself to others.
Social Comparison Processes
37
The presentation of reinforcements irregularly around an average time (e.g., after one day, three days, and two days, averaging reinforcement every two days). This is a powerful way to sustain desired behavior for long periods of time.
Variable Interval Schedule
38
The presentation of reinforcements irregularly around an average number of correct or desired responses (e.g., the way a slot machine pays out). This is a powerful way to sustain desired behavior for long periods of time.
Variable Ration Schedule
39
(From operant conditioning) When future behavior decreases in frequency because there is no consequence to a current behavior.
Extinction
40
(From operant conditioning) When reinforcers are presented after corrected or desired responses on a fixed time schedule (e.g. daily, weekly, monthly, etc.).
Fixed Interval Schedule
41
The presentation of reinforcements after a fixed number of correct or desired responses (e.g. after every third arrest).
Fixed Ration Schedule
42
A phenomenon that explains why some behaviors are repeated while others stop.
Law of Effect
43
Anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior.
Motivation
44
An individual’s belief that he/she can perform a task to an acceptable level.
Expectancy
45
Claims that motivation is a function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
46
A desired end state.
Goal
47
Selecting desired end states as a way to motivate human behavior
Goal Setting
48
The knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual possesses.
Individual Behaviors
49
The belief that achieving an acceptable level of performance will result of the task at hand.
Instrumentality
50
An acceptable level of accomplishment of the task at hand.
Performance Objective aka Performance Outcomes
51
The compensation that one receives for the amount of effort extended.
Reward aka Reward Outcome
52
The value a recipient places on a reward offered in exchange for completing a task.
Valence
53
Organizational member who demonstrates a high level of critical thinking but low levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
Alienated Follower
54
Organizational member who demonstrates a low level of critical thinking and a high level of engagement in the organizational mission.
Conformist Follower
55
Condition describing what happens to individuals who eventually fail as leaders, despite performing well for a long time in followership and junior leadership roles.
Derailment
56
Organizational member who demonstrates a high level of critical thinking and high levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
Exemplary Follower
57
A collaborator with leaders in the work of organizations.
Follower
58
The role of followers in a leadership process: it means the act of committing and working cooperatively with other followers and leaders to achieve shared goals by harmonizing individual roles and goals with the larger vision of the group (organization, community, or society), and may include acting like a leader when required by the situation.
Followership
59
Concept that describes an organization’s resources and how an individual might focus solely on their rights and needs versus respecting the common good, while acknowledging the mutual responsibilities he/she has with others.
Organizational Commons
60
Organizational member who demonstrates a low level of critical thinking and low levels of engagement in the organizational mission.
Passive Follower
61
Demonstrating exemplary leadership behaviors irrespective of organizational role.
Upward Leadership
62
Unproductive behavior that hinders the group from achieving organizational objectives.
Blocking Roles
63
Subgroups of individuals within a larger group who share common goals, values, and expectations sometimes at odds with other subgroups and perhaps the larger group’s goals, values and expectations.
Cliques
64
The strength of the bonds linking individuals to and in the group. It is sometimes referred to as the glue that keeps a group together.
Cohesion
65
Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other while achieving a common purpose, mission, or task.
Group
66
The social standards that regulate group members’ behaviors. It regulate the group’s activities by identifying what is acceptable and what is not.
Group Norms
67
A coherent set of behaviors expected of people who occupy specific positions within a group.
Group Roles
68
The underlying pattern of roles, norms, and relations among members of a group.
Group Structure
69
A quality exhibited when members of the group are diversified in terms of their abilities, skills, resources, and/or social makeup that are required to accomplish the group’s task or mission.
Heterogeneous
70
A quality exhibited when members of the group are similar in terms of their abilities, skills, resources, and/or social makeup that are required to accomplish the group’s task or mission.
Homogeneous
71
A characteristic of people being somewhat mutually dependent to accomplish a group task or goal.
Interdependency
72
The position of a group member who performs behaviors that improve the nature and quality of interpersonal relations among other group members.
Relationship-Building Role
73
The perception and uncertainty due to unclear expectations by a group member accurately performs his/her assigned purpose in the group.
Role Ambiguity
74
The perception and clear understanding demonstrated when a group member accurately performs his/her assigned purpose in the group.
Role Clarity
75
A state of tension, distress, or uncertainty caused by inconsistent or conflicting expectations associated with one’s role in the group
Role Conflict
76
The reduction of individual effort exerted when people work in groups as compared to when they work alone.
Social Loafing
77
The level of rights and privileges that members have within the group.
Status
78
Any position in a group occupied by a member who performs behaviors that promote completion of tasks and activities.
Task-Facilitating Role
79
Group members that are so tightly coupled that each member’s outcomes are inextricable tied to each other’s outcome.
Team
80
A group’s judgment about its own capability to perform a specific task.
Collective or Group Efficacy
81
Six readily observable group behavior patterns, the presence of which indicate a high level of group cohesion.
Common Indicators of Group Cohesion
82
The sum of forces that attracts members to a group, provides resistance to leaving it, and motivates them to be active in it.
Group Cohesion
83
An instrument that measures task and social cohesion of action.
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ)
84
A process where a group strives for unanimity rather than objectively appraising and selecting the best course of action.
Groupthink
85
The degree to which the members of a group like each other and enjoy personal satisfaction from being members of the group.
Social Cohesion
86
The degree to which a group works together to achieve a specific and identifiable goal.
Task Cohesion
87
A source of intergroup conflict brought about when a leader issues vague instructions to subordinates groups, allowing separate groups to interpret their meaning and how to accomplish the task.
Ambiguous Work Assignment
88
A conflict management strategy where the leader monitors the conflict, but does not get involved in its resolution, allowing the conflict to run its course and/or those in conflict to resolve it.
Avoidance
89
A source of intergroup conflict brought about when two or more groups fight over limited resources (e.g. money, people, and facilities).
Competition Over Scare Resources
90
A conflict management strategy where a leader mandates a solution to groups that are experiencing conflict with each other.
Forcing
91
A source of intergroup conflict brought about by little or no interaction between groups
Frequency of Interaction
92
A source of intergroup conflict where the actions and tone of a group in pursuit of its goals generates conflict with another group in the pursuit of its goal because the groups don’t share the same goals.
Goal Orientation
93
A proactive conflict management strategy where a leader acts to prevent or reduce the chance of conflict by forming a group with representatives from all groups to identify and resolve potential conflict.
Liaison Group
94
A source of intergroup conflict brought about when groups are not located together. Physical separation keeps them from getting to know each very well.
Physical Separation
95
A reactive conflict management strategy where a leader (or third-party mediator) bring members of conflicting groups together to identify, discuss, and resolve intergroup conflict after conflict has developed.
Problem Solving
96
A conflict management strategy where a leader creates an overarching goal that requires conflicting groups to achieve an objective critically important to all groups, but that can only be achieved through intergroup cooperation.
Superordinate Goal
97
A source of intergroup conflict created by the way in which work products are measured. One group may generate an easily measurable product while another generates a product that is more difficult or impossible to measure.
Tangible Nature of Work
98
A source of intergroup conflict where one group’s perception of how long work should take is different from another group’s perception of how long it should take.
Time Orientation
99
person or group that the focal person uses to evaluate the equity or inequity of his/her exchange relationship
Reference source
100
organizational member who demonstrates a varying level of critical thinking and varying levels of engagement in organizational mission
Pragmatist follower
101
Control derived from the fact that one person, known as an influencer (leader), has the ability to reward another person, known as the influence (follower or subordinate), for carrying out expressed or implied directions.
Reward Power
102
The negative side of reward power. The ability of the influencer (leader) to punish the influence (follower or subordinate.)
Coercive Power
103
Authority that exists when subordinate or influence acknowledges that the influencer has a "right" or is lawfully entitled to exert influence --- within certain bounds. Also called formal authority.
Legitimate Power
104
Authority based on the desire of the influence (follower or subordinate) to be like, or identify with, the influencer (leader).
Referent power
105
Control based on the belief or understanding that the influencer (leader) has specific knowledge or relevant expertise that the influence (follower or subordinate) does not. Also called information power.
Expert Power
106
The acceptance of the leader's influence evidenced by the follower's behavior.
Compliance
107
The acceptance of influence because the source is an attractive, like-able source worthy of emulation.
Identification
108
Leadership concepts, as identified by Edwin Hollander, that are analogous to the principles of banking and account management. Hollander described that individuals bank "influence" credits in the mind of their followers and workers. The more the leader have in their bank accounts, the more influence they have over the follower.
Idiosyncrasy Credits
109
The acceptance of the leader's influence including the leader's underlying beliefs.
Internalization
110
The ability to exert influence; that is, the ability to change the attitudes or behavior of individuals or groups.
Power
111
The overt or covert refusal to respond to the leader's attempt to influence.
Resistance
112
Principles of human motivation created and developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management. These theories articulate two very different sets of beliefs about motivating workers that reflect the core beliefs of the school of Scientific Management and the Human Resource Schools of Thought.
Theory X and Theory Y
113
The initial departure from the School of Scientific Management. It suggested that workers are motivated by being included in management planning. This school of thought was made famous by the Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Experiments. This School of thought fell short of assumptions inherent in the School of Human Resources -- which is that workers will actively seek to meet organizational goals as psychological and social needs are met.
School of Human Relations
114
The origin of modern theories of motivation and organizational goals, the initial departure from the School of Human Relations and the third school of thought, in a trend to rely increasingly upon workers (followers) to contribute to organization goals. This thinking subscribes to the notion that once core physical needs are met, people are motivated by social and psychological needs.
School of Human Resources
115
A concept that suggests that work should be scientifically analyzed, allowing a cost benefit perspective on work flows that should minimize all inefficiencies. Tasks should be broken down to small repetitive functions. Underlying beliefs for this school of thought are that workers are basically lazy and cannot really contribute to organizational goals.
School of Scientific Management (Taylorism / Taylor System)
116
A concept that all human interaction is a product of a type of cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. For example, when a person perceives the costs of a relationship as outweighing the perceived benefits, then the theory predicts that the person will choose to leave the relationship. The theory, rooted in economics, was first articulated by George C. Homans in 1958.
Social Exchange Theory
117
A cooperative, mutually beneficial connection between two people or groups. It is the relationship articulated within the Social Exchange Theory.
Symbiotic Relationship
118
Overlapping circle-style illustrations of a logical relationship between things. These were conceived by John Venn, Circa 1880.
Venn Diagram
119
The special personal quality or power of an individual making him or her capable of influencing or inspiring large numbers of people through their perceived social relationship to that person.
Charisma
120
The four components that make up transformational leadership.
The Four I's
121
One of the four components of transformational leadership. This components describes leaders who are exemplary role models.
Idealized influence
122
One of the four components of Transformational leadership. This components describes leaders who act as coaches and advisors to the followers.
Individualized consideration
123
One of the four components of Transformational leadership. This component describes leaders who motivate followers to commit to the vision of the organization.
Inspirational motivation
124
One of the four components of Transformational leadership. This component describes leaders who encourage innovation and creativity through challenging the normal beliefs or views of the group.
Intellectual Stimulation
125
An exchange relationship in which the leader and the follower are engaged in economic, social, or psychological trading. The form of the exchange may be negotiable and is constrained by "Moral Values" - Social norms pertaining to fairness, justice, and so on.
Transactional Leadership
126
Is not an exchange process, but an appeal to followers' sense of values beyond their own personal interests.
Transformational Leadership
127
An unplanned incremental change made in response to past or current events. How the leader responds to the call for action. Something the organizational leader initiates in response to change.
Adaptation
128
An organizational problem-solving process consisting of seven stages of activity through which an organization adapts to change.
Adaptive-coping cycle
129
The process of comparing a unit's work and service methods against the best practices others use in order to identify where changes may be necessary.
Benchmarking
130
Any alteration of the status quo. Any process imposed on an organization that requires that organization to respond.
Change
131
One that is initiated in anticipation of key external events.
Anticipatory Change
132
A change to individual components of the organization.
Incremental change
133
A change that affects the entire organization.
Major Change
134
One that happens in response to key eternal events.
Reactive Change
135
One in which change involves learning, and learning involves change. An organization skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to reflect knowledge and insight.
Learning Organization
136
A major change necessitated by external events.
Re-creation
137
A major response in anticipation of external events that may ultimately require change.
Reorientation
138
An approach for making continuous improvement part of an organization's culture. An integrated leadership approach consisting of a set of principles and procedures that maximize the production and delivery of high-quality goods and services in an organization.
Total Quality Management
139
A Mode of though change made in anticipation of future events.
Tuning
140
One that directly contributes to the organization's clearly defined quality outputs.
Value-added activity
141
The model speculates that categories of human needs are arranged in a predetermined in order of importance. This order is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the lowest level is associated with physiological needs, while the uppermost level is associated with self-actualization needs. Once an individual has moved upward to the next level, needs within the lower level will no longer be seen as a priority by the individual.
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
142
Body of thought developed by John R.P. French and Bertram Raven in 1959. They identified five bases or sources of social power. The original five bases were: reward, coercive, legitimate, referent and expert (or information). This theory is based on the premise that power and influence involve relations between at least two parties. It recognizes that influencers (leaders) draw from sources of power most often in combinations to motivate a recipient or the influence (follower or subordinate).
Bases of Social Power Theory
