Leadership Flashcards
_____ is the idea that people who become leaders possess traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders.
Leader emergence
In a study using a large international sample, _____ found that the motivation to lead has three aspects (factors): affective identity, noncalculative, and social-normative.
Chan and Drasgow
People with an _____ motivation become leaders because they enjoy being in charge and leading others. Of the three leadership motivation factors, people scoring high on this one tend to have the most leadership experience and are rated by others as having high leadership potential.
affective identity
Those with a _____ motivation seek leadership positions when they perceive that such positions will result in personal gain. For example, becoming a leader may result in an increase in status or in pay.
noncalculative
People with a _____ motivation become leaders out of a sense of duty. For example, a member of the Kiwanis Club might agree to be the next president because it is “his turn,” or a faculty member might agree to chair a committee out of a sense of commitment to the university.
social-normative
Though women often emerge as leaders, historically they have been excluded from the highest levels of leadership and power in politics and business. Thus, it is said that there is a “_____” for women in leadership and management. This _____ is slowly breaking, as the vast majority of women leaders at the highest levels have achieved their positions since 1990
glass ceiling
In contrast to leader emergence, which deals with the likelihood that a person will become a leader, _____ involves the idea that leaders who perform well possess certain characteristics that poorly performing leaders do not.
leader performance
Research on the relationship between personal characteristics and leader _____ has concentrated on three areas: traits, needs, and orientation
performance
_____ has expanded on the importance of cognitive ability by theorizing that the key to effective leadership is the synthesis of three variables: wisdom, intelligence (academic and practical), and creativity.
Sternberg
Effective leader should be concerned more with results than with being _____.
liked
Needs for power, achievement, and affiliation can be measured through various psychological tests. The most commonly used is the _____. The _____ is a projective test in which a person is shown a series of pictures and asked to tell a story about what is happening in each. A trained psychologist then analyzes the stories, identifying the needs themes contained within them. Obviously, this technique is time-consuming and requires a great deal of training.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Another commonly used measure is the _____, developed by Stahl and Harrell. With the _____, the person reads descriptions of jobs that involve varying degrees of power, achievement, and affiliation needs and rates how desirable he finds each particular job.
Job Choice Exercise (JCE)
Women were more likely than men to engage in behaviors associated with _____ leadership.
high-quality
A leader’s _____ can be measured by several instruments, two of which are the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
task or person orientation
The _____ is filled out by supervisors or leaders who want to know their own behavioral style.
Leadership Opinion Questionnaire LOQ
The _____ is completed by subordinates to provide a picture of how they perceive their leader’s behavior.
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire LBDQ
_____ believed that many unsuccessful leaders are insecure and adopt one of three personality types: the paranoid or passive-aggressive, the high-likability floater, and the narcissist.
Hogan
The source of insecurity for leaders who are _____, or both is some incident in their life in which they felt betrayed. On the surface they appear to be supportive, but at the same time they will “stab” another person in the back.
paranoid, passive-aggressive
The type of leader who is insecure and seldom rocks the boat or causes trouble is known as a _____. This person goes along with the group, is friendly to everyone, and never challenges anyone’s ideas. Thus, he travels through life with many friends and no enemies. The reason he has no enemies is because he never does anything, challenges anyone, or stands up for the rights of his employees. Such leaders will be promoted and never fired because even
though they make no great performance advances, they are well liked. Their employees have high morale but show relatively low performance.
high-likability floater
_____ are leaders who overcome their insecurity by overconfidence. They like to be the center of attention, promote their own accomplishments, and take most, if not all, of the credit for the successes of their group—but they avoid all blame for failure.
Narcissists
The best-known and most controversial situational theory was developed by Fred _____ in the mid-1960’s. _____ believed that an individual’s leadership style is the result of a lifetime of experiences and thus is extremely difficult to change.
Fiedler
_____ model holds that any individual’s leadership style is effective only in certain situations. Thus, Fiedler would argue that rather than teaching people to change their leadership styles, leadership training should concentrate on helping people understand their style of leadership and learn how to manipulate a situation so that the two match.
Fiedler’s contingency
To help people understand their leadership style, Fiedler developed the _____ Scale.
Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC)
Low-scoring LPC leaders tend to be task oriented, whereas high-scoring LPC leaders tend to be more concerned with _____ relations. High-LPC leaders would fall in the same quadrant as Theory Y and consideration leaders. Low-LPC leaders would fall in the same quadrant as Theory X and initiating-structure leaders.
interpersonal
Fiedler’s training program, called _____, has also been supported by research. This program is based on Fiedler’s belief that an individual’s leadership style is not easily changed. Thus, to improve their abilities, leaders learn through four-hour workshops how to diagnose situations and then change these situations to fit their particular leadership styles. _____ is probably the only training program in the country concentrating on changing the situation rather than the leader.
Leader Match
Another situational theory, known as _____ theory, was developed by Geier, Downey, and Johnson, who believed that each leader has one of six behavioral styles: informational, magnetic, position, affiliation, coercive, or tactical.
IMPACT
The leader who has an _____ provides information in a climate of ignorance, where important information is missing from the group.
Informational Style
A leader with a _____ leads through energy and optimism and is effective only in a climate of despair, which is characterized by low morale.
magnetic style
A person who uses the _____ leads by virtue of the power inherent in that position. Such a person might lead through statements like “As your captain, I am ordering you to do it” or “Because I am your mother—that’s why.”
position style
A person with an _____will leads by liking and caring about others. This style is similar to that of the person-oriented leader discussed previously. A leader using _____will be most effective in a climate of anxiety or when worry predominates.
affiliation style
A person using the _____ leads by controlling reward and punishment and is most effective in a climate of crisis. Such a leader will often use statements such as “Do it or you’re fired” or “If you can get the package there on time, I will have a little something for you.” This style is typical in war.
coercive style
A leader with a _____ leads through the use of strategy and is most effective in a climate of disorganization.
tactical style
According to House’s _____ theory, a leader can adopt one of four behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation: instrumental, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented.
path–goal
House’s path–goal theory
The _____ style calls for planning, organizing, and controlling the activities of employees.
instrumental
House’s path–goal theory
The _____-style leader shows concern for employees.
supportive
House’s path–goal theory
The _____-style leader shares information with employees and lets them participate in decision making.
participative
House’s path–goal theory
Leader who uses the _____ oriented style sets challenging goals and rewards increases in performance.
achievement
Another theory that focuses on the relationship between leader and follower is the _____ theory developed by Hersey and Blanchard, who postulated that a leader typically uses one of four behavioral styles: delegating, directing, supporting, or coaching.
situational leadership
Situational Leadership Theory developed by Hersey and Blanchard
For R1 followers, the most effective leader behavior is the directing approach. That is, the leader directs the follower by telling him what to do and how to do it.
R1: Unable and unwilling or insecure
Situational Leadership Theory developed by Hersey and Blanchard
A coaching approach should be used with R2 followers because they are willing to do the work but are not sure how to do it. Leaders using this approach explain and clarify how work should be done.
R2: Unable but willing and confident
Situational Leadership Theory developed by Hersey and Blanchard
R3 followers are given plenty of emotional support as well as opportunities for two-way communication. This approach is successful because these followers already know what to do but are not sure whether they want to do it.
R3: Able but unwilling or insecure
Situational Leadership Theory developed by Hersey and Blanchard
R4 followers are most productive and happy when a delegating leadership style is used. These followers are both willing and able to perform the task. Thus, the only real job for the leader is to delegate specific tasks to subordinates and then let them complete those tasks with minimal supervision or guidance.
R4: Able and willing or confident
_____ theory was developed by Dansereau, Graen, and Haga and was originally called vertical dyad linkage (VDL) theory.
The situational theories discussed earlier concentrate on interactions between leaders and situations, and between leaders and employees with differing levels of ability.
_____ theory, however, concentrates on the interactions between leaders and subordinates. These interactions are called _____.
Leader–member exchange (LMX)
_____ theory was developed by Dansereau, Graen, and Haga and was originally called vertical dyad linkage (VDL) theory.
The situational theories discussed earlier concentrate on interactions between leaders and situations, and between leaders and employees with differing levels of ability.
_____ theory, however, concentrates on the interactions between leaders and subordinates. These interactions are called _____.
Leader–member exchange (LMX)
_____ Model does provide a flowchart that can tell a leader what process to go through to make a decision in a particular situation.
Vroom-Yetton
_____ is another popular specific behavioral theory. This one holds that leaders and managers are most effective when they are out of their offices, walking around and meeting with and talking to employees and customers about their needs and progress.
_____ is thought to increase communication, build relationships with employees, and encourage employee participation.
Management by walking around (MBWA)
Earlier in this chapter, French and Raven’s bases of power were alluded to in terms of their relationships to Geier et al.’s _____ theory. These authors identified five basic types of power: expert, legitimate, reward, coercive, and referent.
IMPACT
IMPACT theory. These authors identified five basic types of power:
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, in certain situations, leaders who know something useful—that is, have _____ knowledge—will have power. But there are two requirements for _____ power.
First, the knowledge must be something that others in an organization need. Second, others must be aware that the leader knows something. Information is powerful only if other people know that the leader has it or if the leader uses it.
expert
IMPACT theory. These authors identified five basic types of power:
Leaders obtain _____ power on the basis of their positions. For example, a sergeant has power over a corporal, a vice president has power over a supervisor, and a coach has power over players on a football team. Leaders with _____ power are best able to get employees to comply with their orders but have low follower satisfaction.
legitimate
IMPACT theory. These authors identified five basic types of power:
Leaders also have power to the extent that they can reward and punish others
Reward and Coercive Powers
IMPACT theory. These authors identified five basic types of power:
Another source of power for a leader may lie in the positive feelings that others hold for him. Leaders who are well liked can influence others even in the absence of reward and coercive power. Leaders can obtain such _____ power by complimenting others, doing favors, and generally being friendly and supportive. Employees of leaders with _____ power are most committed to their organizations and satisfied with their jobs
referent
In the past 20 years, it has become popular to separate leadership styles into two types: _____.
transactional and transformational
_____ leadership consists of many of the task-oriented behaviors mentioned throughout this chapter—setting goals, monitoring performance, and providing a consequence to success or failure.
_____ leadership is most related to the personality dimension of extraversion; is positively related to agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience; and is negatively related to neuroticism.
Transactional
_____ leadership focuses on changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, standards, and performance of others.
_____ leaders are often labeled as being “visionary,” “charismatic,” and “inspirational.”
Transformational
Interestingly, the meta-analysis by Eagly et al. found that female leaders engaged in transformational behaviors slightly more often than male leaders. Though male leaders generally engage in more transactional and _____ leadership behaviors than do female leaders, women are more likely to use reward to motivate employees.
laissez-faire
On the basis of their research, _____ hypothesized that good leaders possess five characteristics not shared by poor leaders: vision, differentiation, values, transmission, and flaws.
Hunt and Laing
Over the past few years, an extensive international project involving approximately 150 researchers has been undertaken to study cultural differences in leadership. This endeavor, called Project _____, has two goals: (1) discover differences and similarities in cultures and (2) determine why these differences exist. Project _____ researchers have concluded that cultures can differ on these nine dimensions:
- Uncertainty avoidance: The extent to which a culture avoids uncertainty by using social norms and rituals
- Power distance: The extent to which power is unequally shared
- Social collectivism: The extent to which a culture encourages collective distribution of resources
- In-group collectivism: The extent to which individuals express pride in their organizations and families
- Gender egalitarianism: The extent to which a culture tries to minimize differences in gender roles and prevent discrimination
- Assertiveness: The extent to which individuals in a culture are assertive and challenging in social relationships
- Future orientation: The extent to which a culture plans for and invests in the future
- Performance orientation: The extent to which a culture encourages and rewards improvement in performance
- Humane orientation: The extent to which a culture encourages and rewards people for being fair, caring, and giving
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness)
Project _____ researchers also determined that six main leadership styles distinguish cultures: charismatic, self-protective, humane, team oriented, participative, and autonomous.
- A charismatic style involves vision, inspiration, integrity, and a performance orientation.
- A self-protective style involves following procedure, emphasizing status differences, being self-centered, and saving face.
- A humane style involves being modest and helping others.
- A team-oriented style involves being collaborative, building teams, and being diplomatic.
- A participative style involves getting the opinions and help of others.
- An autonomous style involves being independent and individualistic and making one’s own decisions.
GLOBE
