Last Minute Review Flashcards
What are the two types of developmental changes?
- Quantitative: Measured
- Qualitative: Change in organization or structure
Who was behaviorism outlined by?
- John Watson
- Ivan Pavlov
- B.F. Skinner
- Joseph Wolpe
What is the passive theory of behaviorism?
The mind is a blank slate and children learn how to behave in certain ways
What is the basic premise of behaviorism?
All behavior is a result of learning
What is John Locke’s view of knowledge?
Knowledge is all acquired by experience
What is the epigenetic principle of development?
States that growth is orderly, universal and systematic
What are Piagets “4 Stages of Cognitive Development?”
- Sensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)
- Preoperational (2 to 7 yrs)
- Concerete Operations (7 to 12 yrs)
- Formal Operations (11/12 to 16 yrs)
What is a schema?
Patterns of thought and behavior
What is object permanence?
It occurs during the sensorimotor stage and it is when a child recognizes that an object they can’t see still exists
What is centration?
- It is the act of focusing on 1 aspect of something
- Key factor of the preoperational stage
What is conservation?
- The child knows the volume and quantity do not change, just because the appearance of the object changes
- Takes place in concrete operations stage
When does abstract scientific thinking take place?
Formal operations stage
What is Keagan’s Constructive Developmental Model?
Emphasizes the impact of interpersonal interaction and our perception of reality
What are Lawrence Kohlberg’s 3 Levels of Moral Development?
- Preconventional Level: Behavior governed by consequences
- Conventional Level: A desire to conform to socially acceptable rules
- Postconventional Level: Self accepted moral principles guide behavior
What’s Daniel Levinson’s 4 Major Eras/Transitions Theory
- Depicted changes in men’s lives throughout the lifespan
- 4 key eras include childhood/adolescents, early adulthood, middle adulthood and later adulthood
What did Lev Vygotsky propose?
Proposed that cognitive development is not the result of innate factors, but is produced by activities that take place in one’s culture
What’s Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development?”
Refers to the difference in the child’s ability to solve problems on their own vs their ability to solve them with the help from others
What are the age’s of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages?
- Oral (birth to 1 year)
- Anal (1 to 3 years)
- Phallic/Oedipal (3 to 7 years)
- Latency (3-5 to 12)
- Genital (adolescents and adulthood)
What is the libido?
The drive to live and the sexual instinct that is present even at birth. It is said to be sublimated during the latency stage as the individual has little interest in sex
What is regression?
The return to an earlier stage caused by stress
What is Freud criticized for?
Focusing on sex and not including the entire lifespan in his theory
Who did Maslow interview?
Self-actualized people
What is “Maslows Hierarchy of Needs?”
Claims that lower order physiological and safety needs to be fulfilled before self actualization can occur
What is dualism?
When students view the truth as either right or wrong
What is relativism?
The notion that a perfect answer may not exist. There’s a desire to know various opinions.
What is a commitment to relativism?
When an individual is willing to change their opinion based on novel facts and new points of view
What are William Perry’s 3 Stages in the Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development in Adults?
- Dualism
- Relativism
- Commitment to relativism
What is Jame’s Fowler’s view on faith?
It’s not identical with one’s belief in religion, it can be centered on a career, institution, family, money, success or even oneself
What is a macroculture?
The dominant or major culture in the country
What is a microculture?
The smaller culture
What is acculturation?
Learning the behaviors and expectations of a culture
What is the universal culture?
Implies that we are all genetically and biologically similar
What is “biological sameness”?
We all need air, food, and water
What is the national culture?
Can determine our language, political views and lows
What is regional culture?
Gives us the behavior for a certain region
What is ecological culture?
Factors such as earthquakes, floods, and food supply that may influence behavior
What is racism?
Occurs when one race views itself as superior to others
What is a race?
It has a set of genetically transmitted characteristics
What is ethnocentrism?
Means that a given group sees itself as the standard by which other ethnic groups are measured
What is the emic approach?
In the emic approach the counselor helps the client understand their culture
What is the etic approach?
In the etic approach the counselor focuses on the similarities in people, treating people as being the same
What is the autoplastic dilemma?
Autoplastic implies that the counselor helps the client change to cope with his or her environment
What is the alloplastic dilemma?
Alloplastic occurs when the counselor has the clients try and change their environment
What is paralanguage?
Implies that the client’s tone of voice, loudness, vocal inflection and speed of delivery, silence and hesitation must be taken into consideration
What is low context communication?
Implies that there will be a long verbal explanation
What is high context communication?
Relies on non-verbals that are readily understood by others in the culture
What is prejudice?
Occurs when we have an opinion based on insufficient evidence
What does androgyny imply?
That psychologically healthy people possess both masculine and feminine characteristics
What are proxemics/spatial relations?
Addresses the issue of personal space
What’s a means test?
Determines whether a client is eligible for a social program or benefit such as temporary assistance for needy families (TANF) or food stamps
What is social comparison theory?
Postulates that we evaluate ourselves and accomplishments by comparing ourselves to others
What is a worldview?
The way a client sees the world due to attitudes, value systems and beliefs
What are the stages of the Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model?
- Conformity
- Dissonance
- Resistance and Immersion
- Introspection
- Synergetic Articulation/Awareness
What happens in the conformity stage?
Individual leans towards to the dominant culture and prefers a counselor from dominant culture
What happens in the dissonance stage?
Question and confusion, prefers a counselor from a minority group
What happens in the resistance/immersion stage?
Rejecting the dominant culture while accepting one’s own culture
What happens in the introspection stage?
Mixed feelings related to previous stage (rejecting dominant culture), prefer having a counselor from one’s own racial/ethnic group
What happens in the synergetic articulation/awareness stage?
Stops racial and cultural oppression, prefers counselor with a similar worldview
Multicultural Counseling: Native Americans
- Often keep their suffering private, speak few words, hesitate often
- Do not engage in eye contact while talking or listening
- Tend to emphasize spirituality
- Consider counseling in their home, story telling combined with advice giving is often effective
Multicultural Counseling: African Americans
- Like to be taught concrete skills and strategies for change
- Systems based family therapy include nuclear and extended family
- Short term counseling and behavioral modalities are often effective
- Counselor self disclosure, topics related to spirituality and group work may be beneficial
Multicultural Counseling: Asian Americans
- Most diverse group and characterized as patriarchial
- Academic and professional success are valued
- Speak low and desire assertiveness training and therapies that emphasize insight
- Counselor is seen as a trained expert
Multicultural Counseling: Hispanics
- Often benefit from catharsis (getting feelings out)
- Separation from one’s family of origin is generally not a goal of therapy
What is psychoanalysis?
- Theory of personality and form of psychotherapy
- Long term tx lasting 3-5 years or more
- In classical analysis the client is seen 4-5 times per week
- Seen as historic because it focuses on the past
What are 3 main themes of psychoanalysis?
- Free Association: Asking the client to say whatever comes to mind
- Interpreting dreams
- Examining unconscious material
What does Freud think is the most important ego defense mechanism?
Repression: Something that is too painful to face, becomes totally forgotten
What is displacement?
Taking anger out on a safe target rather than the actual source of anger
What is projection?
When you can’t accept a quality about yourself so you attribute it to others
What is reactive formation?
Denying an unacceptable unconscious impulse by acting in the opposite manner
What is sublimation?
Express an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable manner
What is rationalization?
When a person overrates or underrates a reward or outcome
What is identification?
Joining a feared person (such as a gang) to relieve anxiety
When does suppression or denial take place?
Occurs when you purposely don’t think about a situation
What is abreaction/catharsis?
The discharge of repressed emotions
What is eros?
The life instinct
What is thanatos?
The death instinct
What are the similarities and differences between Jung and Freud?
- Jung broke away from Freud because he over-emphasized the role of sexuality
- They both have psychodynamic approaches
What did Jung believe the collective unconscious is?
An unconscious that one inherits which is common to all individuals. It’s composed of archetypes passed down through the ages
What did Jung believe a persona is?
A social mask a person wears
How did Jung explain gender?
The animus and anima
How does Jung explain the self?
The self is symbolized via a mandala, or a balance between the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious
Who created the introversion/extroversion typologies?
Jung
What does Jung’s term individuation mean?
Its his term for becoming a unique human being
What is Adler’s Individual Psychology approach?
It’s psychodynamic and focuses on the fact that behavior is one’s unconscious attempt to compensate for feelings of inferiority
What did Adler stress?
The “will to power” to generate feelings of superiority
What does Adler believe behavior is motivated by?
He believes its motivated primarily by future opportunities rather than the past
How did Adler feel about birth order?
- First born children are conservative leaders
- Second born children tend to be more competitive and rebellious
What do behaviorists assume?
They assume behavior is based on learning rather than insight into the unconscious mind
What are some criticisms of behavior therapy?
- Does not yield insight
- Treats symptoms and not the cause
- Can be manipulative
- Changes bx but not underlying feelings
What is B.F. Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism?
Poses that behavior is molded solely by its consequences (aka operant or instrumental conditioning)
What is Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory?
Person’s own behavior increases when he or she sees somebody else getting reinforced for it (aka vicarious learning or modeling)
What is extinction? (such as a time out)
Will lower behavior after an initial extinction burst or response burst
What do ratio schedules of reinforcement rely on?
Work output
What do interval schedules of reinforcement rely on?
Time
What is intermittent reinforcement?
Occurs when some, but not all of the desired behaviors are reinforced
What is shaping with successive approximations?
Reinforcing small chunks of behavior that lead to the desired behavior
What is differential reinforcement of other behaviors?
Takes place when the helper reinforces behaviors other than the dysfunctional behavior to reduce the dysfunctional target behavior
What is operant conditioning according to Skinner?
Behavior is affected by the consequences that come after the behavior
What is Ivan Pavlov known for?
Classical conditioning
Behavior modification is based on ____ while behavior therapy is rooted with _____
Skinner, Pavlov
What is implosive therapy?
Where the client imagines scary or feared stimuli in the safety of a counseling office
What is a biofeedback device?
They are used to enhance the client’s self control and are a form of operant conditioning
What are criticisms of behavior therapy?
- Doesn’t yield insight
- Mechanistic
- Ignores developmental stages
- Deals with bx instead of the whole person
What is a great way to determine whether a question is referring to classical conditioning or Skinner’s operant conditioning?
Ask: Would the conditioning work with every member of the species? If the answer is yes, then it’s most likely Pavlovian conditioning (ex: all dogs salivate when they eat meat)
What is Carl Roger’s Person Centered Humanistic Therapy?
The notion is that human beings can self actualize and reach their full potential in a therapeutic setting that fosters growth
What are the 3 conditions for effective helping?
- Empathy
- Being genuine/congruent
- Unconditional positive regard
What does unconditional positive regard mean?
Accepting the client regardless of their behavior
What are some criticisms of person centered therapy?
- Too optimistic
- May not be tx of choice for severely disturbed individuals or very young children
What is REBT stand for?
Albert Ellis’s Directive Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
What is the premise of REBT?
- Changing your thinking (cognitions) can change your life
- Irrational beliefs (IBs) are replaced by rational beliefs (RBs) via counseling process
What is the ABCDE model of personality?
- A is the activating event
- B is the clients belief system
- C is the emotional consequence
- At D the counselor disputes the irrational belief at B
- E is the new emotional consequence that occurs when B becomes rational
What are criticisms of REBT?
- Does not emphasize feelings or the client relationship
- Mechanistic
- Sterile
What does Beck think about automatic thoughts?
Automatic thoughts are distortions of reality, often characterized by black/white thinking, wrongly attributing an event to ourself
What do experiential/existential approaches focus on?
The here and now
What type of approach is gestalt therapy?
Experiential form of therapy that relies on dream work, roleplaying, confrontation, hot seat and empty chair technique
What does gestalt mean?
“Organized whole” where humans want to be self actualized and complete (whole)
In gestalt therapy, how are dreams viewed?
Dreams are the road to integration and the counselor asks the client to recount dreams as if they were occurring in the present moment
What is the goal for gestalt therapy?
- For the client to take responsibility and achieve awareness in the here and now
- Doing is emphasized over just talking about problems
What are the ego states in Eric Berne’s Transactional Analysis? (TA)
- Parent
- Adult
- Child
- (PAC) which roughly corresponds to Freud’s superego, ego and id
What did critics say about TA?
Promotes game calling
What is Stephen B Karpman’s drama triangle?
A person changes his or her position from victim to persecutor to rescuer during the discussion
What does William Glasser’s New Reality Therapy focus on?
- Present behavior
- Clients are taught that they create their own personal reality with the behaviors they chose
What does William Glasser believe?
Behavior is the control of our perceptions and that a success identity is the result of being loved and accepted
What are some criticisms of Reality Therapy?
- “Weak” because it does not deal with dreams, the past or traumatic memories
- Downplays environment and ethnic minorities
- Doesnt take into consideration the developmental stages
What does social constructionism emphasize?
Emphasizes that realities are socially constructed
What types of approaches are brief and narrative therapy?
Constructivist
What does narrative therapy postulate?
- Individuals construct their lives by stories they tell about themselves and stories others create about them
- Stories create meaning and this becomes the client’s identity
What does therapy consist of during narrative therapy?
Client describes their experiences and then writes or reauthorizes the narrative in a new way
What is the therapist role in narrative counseling?
They are viewed as a consultant and collaborator with the client
What does solution focused therapy focus on?
Solutions and not on understanding the problem
What does family counseling assert about pathology?
That pathology resides in the family system and not the individual
What is first order change?
Occurs when a client makes a superficial change to deal with the problem but the change does not alter the underlying structure of the family
What is second order change?
Alters the underlying structure and thus makes a difference that is longer lasting
What is triangulation?
Occurs when 2 people who are stressed, bring a 3rd party to reduce the stress level and restore equilibrium
What is fusion?
Blurring of the psychological boundaries between the self and others, the person cannot separate thinking and feeling well
What is differentiation?
The ability to control reason over emotion
What is mimesis?
Therapist imitates or copies the family’s communication and pattern
What happens in strategic family counseling?
Therapist gives directives or prescriptions that are often paradoxical (prescribes the symptom)
What is the ideal group size?
8 is preferable
What are some advantages of having co-leaders?
- Having 2 role models
- More feedback about what’s going on in the group
What are disadvantages of having co-leaders?
- Leaders can work at cross-purposes
- May have conflicting models of therapy
- Could be in a power struggle
What is the initial stage/forming stage/orientation stage of groups?
Getting acquainted
What is the transition/conflict/storming stage?
Characterized by power struggles for control and resistance
What is the working/productive/performing/action stage?
Group works towards goals in a cohesive manner
What is the termination/closure/completion/adjourning stage?
Members must deal with saying goodbye, they often experience improved insight, awareness, accomplish and enhanced self esteem
Who is the scapegoat?
They are blamed for the group’s problems
What is the autocratic/authoritarian style group leader?
- Advocate making decisions for group members
- Appropriate during crisis or when quick decisions are in order
- Typically fosters resentment
What is the laissez faire or hands off style group leader?
- Leader has little involvement
- Appropriate when all members are very committed to a group outcome or goal
What is a democratic approach?
Allows group members to have input into their decisions (typically the best style)
What are speculative leaders?
Often seen as charismatic, they rely on personal power and charisma to move the group in a desirable direction
What is a counseling group?
Focuses on conscious issues related to personal growth and development
What is group therapy?
Can focus on unconscious material, the past and personality change
Who created Trait and Factory Theory?
Frank Parsons
What is the premise of Trait and Factor Theory?
- Client needs to know their own attributes and interests/traits
- Appropriate occupations should be investigated
- Client’s traits should be matched to their occupation
What is the basic assumption for Trait and Factor Theory?
Makes the assumption that there is a single best career goal for everyone (many disagree with this notion)
What is Donald Super known for?
Emphasizing the role of the self concept in career and vocation choice
What is John Holland known for?
- Personality typology theory
- RAISEC
- Self directed search
- Vocational preference inventory
Krumboltz, Mitchell and Jones career decision is based on what?
Social learning theory
What factors influence career choice, according to the social learning theory?
- Genetic factors/special abilities
- Environment/special events
- Learning experiences
- Task approach problem solving skills
What is the social cognitive career theory?
Helps complement other theories emphasizing the role of self-efficacy and cognitive processes
What is the Dictionary of Occupational Titles? (DOT)
- Lists over 20,000 job titles, with 9 digit codes for the occupation
- DOT has been replaced by the O*NET
What is the Guide for Occupational Information?
Uses 14 interest areas to help fine tune career choices
What is the Occupational Outlook handbook?
Gives job trend for the future and salaries can accessed over the internet
What is the hidden job market?
80% of jobs are not advertised, so job seekers must network to find them
What is a dislocated worker?
A person who is unemployed due to downsizing, company relocation or when a company closes the business
What is the displaced homemaker?
A women who enters or reenters the workforce after being at home
What is outsourcing?
When U.S. companies rely on labor from another country in order to save money, decreases jobs in the U.S.
What is the recency effect?
Occurs when the rate reflects primarily on the worker’s recent performance rather than entire rating period
What is the halo effect?
When a supervisor generalizes an employee based on 1 characteristic (could be positive or negative)
What is the mean of a t score?
50, and the standard deviation is 10
What areas under the normal curve do you need to remember?
68, 95, 99.7
What do aptitude tests predict?
Potential
What do achievement tests measure?
Gives you current accomplishments, what has been learned up to that point in time
What is a regression toward the mean?
If a client scores exceptionally high or low on the exam, the next time around they will test closer to the mean
What is quantitative research?
Yields numbers
What is qualitative research?
Does not use numerical data
