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last minute Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

steroid hormone action

A

passes through the plasma membrane
binds to cytoplasm receptor
acts directly on DNA
affects gene transcription

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2
Q

peptide hormone action

A

binds to receptor on plasma membrane
acts through 2nd messenger/cAMP
influence enzyme activity/protein kinase

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3
Q

describe the differences in the graphs of a competitive inhibitor and non competitive inhibitor

A

competitive has a slower rate but ends up in the same place

non competitive ends up much lower and has a slower rate

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4
Q

list the sites of a ribosome sin translation going clockwise

A

a, b (the sticky out thing), c (the top), d

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5
Q

immune response

A
  1. antigen ingested by macrophages and b cells
  2. macrophage (apc) activated helper t cell
  3. helper t cell activated b cell which rapidly divides by mitosis to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells
  4. the memory cells remain in the body until infection occurs
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6
Q

protein conformation

A

primary: order and identity of amino acids peptide bonds between subunits
secondary: alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
hydrogen bonding between groups
tertiary: further folding
stabilised by interactions between r groups
quateranry: multiple polypeptide chains, held together by strong bonds
co factor or prosthetic group
–> conjugated protein

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7
Q

davson danelli

A

protein sandwich
used evidence from electron microscopy
shortcomings:
all membranes dont have identical structures
proteins are amphipathic

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8
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

the right one
hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

used evidence from freeze fracture
electron microscopy

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9
Q

hypertonic water movement

A

water leaves cell

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10
Q

hypotonic water movement

A

water enters cell

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11
Q

methane properties

A

gas at 20 degrees
non polar
not a solvent
bp -161
mp -182
2.2 J/g/degrees
760J/g latent heat of vap

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12
Q

wavelengths of visible light

A

between 400 and 700nm

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13
Q

methane produced from

A

organic mattr under anaerboic conditions, methanogenic archaens.

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14
Q

peat forms from

A

waterlogged anaerboci conditions

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15
Q

homologus structure

A

similar in position, structure and evolutionary origin, not in function

divergent ev.

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16
Q

anagolous structure

A

similar function but having a different evolutionary origin. such as the wings of isnects and birds

convergent evolution

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17
Q

HIV attacks…

A

and stops T helper cells from functioning
since t cells are needed to activate b cells to produce antibodies, infection with HIV causes a loss in the ability to produce antibodies which can lead to the development of AIDS

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18
Q

blood clotting

A

tissue damage –> clotting factors (platelts, damaged cells, plasma)
–> enzymatic cascade –> prothrombin + thrombin –> fibrinogen +fiibrin –> blood clot

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19
Q

what controls flowering in short day plants

A

changes in gene expression at shoot apex and length of night

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20
Q

type I pneumocyte

A

thin alveolar cell walls for gas exchange. flat and thin for SA for diffusion

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21
Q

type II pneumocyte

A

secrete surfactant, a water based solution containing phospholipoproteins. surgactants create a moist surcace inside the alveoli to precent the sides of the alveoli from sticking to eachother. they do this by reducing surface tension. the moisture also increases the speed gases dissolve

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22
Q

white blood cells

A

have 70S ribosomes. found in chloroplasts, mitochondria and photosynthesis

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23
Q

flux

A

the process that moves an element from one reservoir or sink to another.

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24
Q

resevoir

A

a place where a certain element, such as carbon, has accumulated or pooled. Also, known as a sink when discussing nutrient cycling.

25
Q

insulin does what to blood sugar

A

lowers it

26
Q

glucagon does what to blood sugar

A

raises it

27
Q

what does immunoglobin do

A

protects against bacteria/viruses by binding to particular antigens

28
Q

follicular phase

A

FSH causes several follicles in the ovary to begin to develop. usually only one matures. As the follicle develops, it secretes estrogen. The estrogen stimulates the uterine lining (endometrium) to thicken with mucus and a rich supply of blood vessels. These changes last about 10 days and prepare the uterus for a possible pregnancy; the endometrium is where a fertilised ovum will implant in order to further develop during pregnancy.

29
Q

ovulation phase

A

A high level of estrogen in the blood (produced by the follicle) causes the pituitary gland to reduce the secretion of FSH (by negative feedback) and begin secretion of LH (by positive feedback). The decrease in FSH will, in turn, decrease the production of estrogen. When the concentration of LH in the blood reaches a certain level, ovulation occurs; that is, one mature follicle (a Graafian follicle) ruptures, releasing a mature egg. Ovulation usually occurs at about the middle of the menstrual cycle.

30
Q

luteal stage

A

After ovulation, LH causes the ruptured follicle to fill with cells, forming the corpus luteum (yellow body). It begins to secrete the hormone progesterone, which maintains the continued growth of the endometrium. The corpus luteum also produces estrogen, which accounts for the rise in this hormone level after ovulation. As the concentration of estrogen and progesterone rise to a certain level, they in turn inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH, respectively (negative feedback). This stage lasts about 14 days.

31
Q

menstruation

A

If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down. This results in a decrease in the level of progesterone and estrogen. With a drop in the progesterone level, the thickened lining of the uterus can no longer be maintained, and it breaks down. As a result, the extra layers of the endometrium lining, the unfertilised egg and a small amount of blood pass out of the body through the vagina. This lasts about 3–5 days. While menstruation is occurring, the amount of estrogen in the blood falls, reducing the inhibitory effect of estrogen on FSH secretion. The pituitary gland then increases its output of FSH, a new follicle starts maturing, and the cycle starts again.

32
Q
A
33
Q

Progesterone (ovary)

A

Rises at the start of the luteal phase; promotes thickening and maintenance of the endometrium (lining of the uterus)

34
Q

Estrogen (ovary)

A

Rises to a peak towards the end of the follicular phase; stimulates repair of the endometrium and an increase in FSH receptors on ovary cells

35
Q

FSH (pituitary)

A

Starts to rise towards the end of the cycle (day 28); stimulates the development of follicles and the production of estrogen by the follicle wall

36
Q

LH (pituitary)

A

Rises to a sudden peak towards the end of the follicular phase; stimulates completion of meiosis in the oocyte and thinning of the follicular wall, so that ovulation can occur. After ovulation, it stimulates the development of the remaining part of the Graafian follicle into the corpus luteum (by causing an increase in the number of follicle cells), which secretes estrogen (this is an example of positive feedback) and progesterone

37
Q

effects of thyroxine

A

Increased rate of utilisation of foods for energy
Increased breathing rate to obtain oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide
Increased rate of protein synthesis and protein catabolism
Increased number and size of mitochondria in most cells of the body
Increased growth rate of children and adolescents
Growth and development of the brain during fetal life and for the first few years of post-natal life
Enhanced carbohydrate metabolism
Enhanced fat metabolism.

38
Q

symptoms of thyroxine deficiency

A

Fatigue
Depression
Forgetfulness
Feeling cold
Constipation.

39
Q

leptin works to

A

suppress appetite

40
Q

melatonin levels are high when

A

youre sleepy

41
Q

melatonin levels low when

A

you wake up

42
Q

sex determination

A

start of xx
In males, a protein named TDF (Testis Determining Factor), coded for by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome, triggers the development of testis and, indirectly, the production of testosterone. TDF is a DNA-binding protein that regulates the transcription of a number of genes involved in the differentiation of the gonads into the testis. This happens around week 8 of pregnancy. Once the testis have developed they start to produce testosterone. This triggers the development of the male genitalia. During puberty, testosterone production further increases, giving rise to the secondary male sexual characteristics, such as pubic hair, enlargement of the penis and deepening of the voice. Testosterone is also responsible for triggering the production of sperm.

43
Q

what hormones does the ovary excrete

A

estrogen, progetorne

44
Q

function of fallopian tubes

A

collects eggs from ovary and carries them to uterus

44
Q

epidiymis function

A

stores sperm until ejaculation

45
Q

seminal vesicles function

A

produce an alkaline, sugar rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy to help them move

46
Q

amylopectin vs amylose

A
47
Q

describe the structure of starch

A

Starch is a polymer made up of glucose monomers. Glucose monomers can form a long, unbranched chain known as amylose or a branched chain called amylopectin. A starch molecule consists of both forms: unbranched amylose and branched amylopectin.

48
Q

key feature of amylopectin

A

gives starch its characteristic stickiness

49
Q

epinephrine

A

attaches to adrenogenic receptors
coupled to g6 protein
message sent to adenyl cyclase
activates second messenger, cAMP
induces smooth muscle relaxation
- vasodilation
- increased contraction of cardiac tissue

50
Q

ghrelin

A

stimulates appetite

51
Q

training at high altitudes:

A

causes increased hematocrit
altitude produces an increase in natural levels of EPO tht produces an increase in hematocrit (RBC in blood). attitude increase mitochondria and myoglobin in muscle cells. more capillaries so more gaseous exchange takes place

52
Q

bohr curve, oxygen affinity

A

hemoglobin has four spots for oxygen, as each get taken, the likelihood of aother joining increases. the affinity increases as oxygen binds = positive cooperativity
once all seats taken up, saturated

53
Q

what affects oxygen being taken up by hemoglobin

A

C arbon dioxide
A cidity
D pg
E xcercise
T emperature

54
Q

stages of actio potential in cardiac muscle

A

depolarization, Na+ in
Na+ channels close
plateau phase, Ca2+ channels open, Ca2+ in
Ca2+ channels close
repolarization phase: K+ out
resting membrane, potential phase

membrane action potential leads to an increase in calcium ions round the myofilaments, activating myoscin ATPase. this elads to the sliding of thick and thin filaments. in cardiac, the action potentials around 300ms, in nerve cells around 2m

55
Q

cardiac conduction

A

sa node sends signal
signal to av node by interatrial spetum
signal to ventricle tops via bundle of his
signal to ventricles via purkinke fibres

56
Q

valves going anticlockwise

A

aortic valve
tricuspid valve/right av valve
bicuspid valve/left av valve
pulmonary valve

57
Q

sodium potassium pumps

A

When the pump is open to the inside of the axon, three sodium ions (Na+) enter the pump and attach to their binding sites.
ATP donates a phosphate group to the pump.
The previous stage causes the protein to change shape expelling Na+ to the outside.
Two potassium ions (K+) from outside then enter and attach to their binding sites.
The binding of the K+ leads to the release of the phosphate which causes the pump to change shape again so that it is only open to the inside of the axon.
K+ is released inside.
Na+ can now enter and bind to the pump again.

58
Q
A

biology (13 decks)

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