Language Variation Over Time

Question 1

How does language change?

Answer 1

Syntactically
Morphologically
Spelling and Orthography
Standardisation
Neologisms
Loan words
Semantically shifts
Register, pragmatics, discourse

Question 2

Why does language change?

Answer 2

Technology
Changes in social attitudes
Changes in attitudes to language
Prescriptivism
Descriptivism
To define new groups and express these identifies

Question 3

What effect did the British Empire have on English?

Answer 3

Took words from the Commonwealth

Question 4

What are the 3 periods of English and their approximate dates?

Answer 4

Early Modern, 1500-1800
Late Modern, 1800-1960
Contemporary (present day), 1960-2024

Question 5

What effect did the scientific Renaissance of the 18th century have on English?

Answer 5

Wrote things in English rather than Latin

Question 6

What are loan words, and where do they come from?

Answer 6

Words taken from other languages- they come from Anglo Saxons (germanic), the Vikings (old norse) and Norman French (latin)

Additionally from conquest and trade, the United States and English creoles

Question 7

What are the three main languages that influenced English?

Answer 7

Germanic
Old norse
Norman French/Latin

Question 8

Name the 7 ways that neologisms (new words) can be created:

Answer 8

1. Conversion
2. Compounding
3. Blending
4. Clipping
5. Affixation
6. Acronyms
7. Eponym

Question 9

What is a conversion? Give an example

Answer 9

When you take a noun and turn it into a verb

For example ‘ghost’ becomes ‘ghosting’

Question 10

What is a compound? Can you give an example?

Answer 10

Putting two existing words together

E.g Cryptocurrency

Question 11

Define a blend and provide an example.

Answer 11

Mashing two words together, such as ‘hangry’ (hungry and angry)

Question 12

What is clipping? Provide an example.

Answer 12

When you shorten a word e.g ‘inspo’ instead of inspiration.

Question 13

What is affixation? Give an example.

Answer 13

When you combine pieces of words together to express an idea

An example is ‘nomophobia’ (no mobile phobia)

Question 14

What is an acronym? Can you provide an example?

Answer 14

When you take the initials of words to create its own word and represent an idea.

For example, FOMO ( Fear Of Missing Out)

Question 15

What is an eponym? Give an example.

Answer 15

A proper noun that is turned into a common noun

E.g Laslo Biro invented a pen which is referred to as a Biro

Question 16

Name 6 processes of semantic change.

Answer 16

1. Amelioration
2. Pejoration
3. Semantic Broadening
4. Semantic Narrowing
5. Semantic Bleaching
6. Metaphor

Question 17

Define amelioration and give an example.

Answer 17

When words become more positive over time.

An example is ‘fond’, which originally meant ‘sticking’ but now means having an affection or liking for something.

Question 18

What is pejoration? Give an example.

Answer 18

Making words more negative over time. E.g ‘villain’ meant any peasant, but now it has evil connotations.

Question 19

What is semantic broadening? Can you give an example?

Answer 19

When words widen from having a more specific, to a more general meaning. E.g ‘dog’ used to refer to only one specific breed, whereas now it means all breeds of dog

Question 20

Define semantic narrowing. Give an example.

Answer 20

When words narrow from having a more general meaning, to a more specific meaning.

For example, ‘girl’ originally referred to all children, whereas now, it is used to describe a female child.

Question 21

Describe semantic bleaching and provide an example.

Answer 21

When words lose their original intensity. Such as ‘Starving’ or ‘fantastic’.

Question 22

What is a metaphor? Give an example.

Answer 22

Whe words hop from one semantic field to another, because of a similarity e.g ‘the dinner was a lump of coal’.

Question 23

What is another name for contemporary English?

Answer 23

Present Day English (P.D.E)

Question 24

Define standardisation.

Answer 24

The process by which English acquired rules of grammar, spelling and punctuation.

Question 25

What is the vernacular?

Answer 25

The language that is used everyday.

Question 26

What was the Renaissance? Give the approximate date.

Answer 26

‘Re-birth’ - When arts, literature, architecture and culture changed. Between 1400-1700.

Question 27

What was the biggest change that drove standardisation?

Answer 27

The printing press

Question 28

What was a big change during standardisation? When was it?

Answer 28

The Great Vowel Shift- 1500

Question 29

Who founded the printing press?

Answer 29

Johnny Gutenberg

Question 30

What is Prescriptivism?

Answer 30

The belief that there are ‘correct’ and ‘incorrect’ forms of language and that people’s language use needs regulating.

Question 31

Who theorised that there is a Prescriptivist attitude towards language?

Answer 31

Jean Aitchison

Question 32

What is Aitchison’s ‘crumbling castle’ metaphor?

Answer 32

The language use of the past was perfect and since then language use has decayed i.e ‘crumbled’.

Question 33

What is Aitchison’s ‘damp spoon’ metaphor?

Answer 33

People use language lazily and can’t be bothered to do language properly.

Question 34

What is Aitchison’s ‘infectious disease’ metaphor?

Answer 34

Language change will spread through a population like a disease.

Question 35

Who coined the theory of informalisation?

Answer 35

Goodman

Question 36

What is Goodman’s theory of informalisation?

Answer 36

1. Blurring of formal and informal boundaries e.g the use of colloquialisms, contractions and conversational tone used in formal settings.
2. Conversationalisation of written language e.g adopting features typical of spoken language like ‘you’ or ‘we’, rhetorical questions and informal expressions.
3. Rise of digital communication e.g the Internet, social media and texting have encouraged a relaxed, casual style of writing that often crosses over into other contexts like emojis and abbreviations.
4. Audience engagement and relatability e.g a shift in focus towards engaging and connecting with audiences on a more personal level. Particularly important for brands, politicians and organisations to build rapport and loyalty.
5. Erosion of language hierarchies e.g traditionally formal language was seen as ‘proper’ whilst informal language was viewed as less serious or professional, however informalisation challenges this hierarchy, demonstrating that informal language can be effective, professional and even persuasive in a variety of contexts. This shift also reflects broader social changes towards inclusivity, individuality and authenticity, where rigid formalities are seen as potentially alienating or outdated.

Question 37

Who coined the theory of ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ ties?

Answer 37

Milroys

Question 38

What are ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ ties?

Answer 38

‘Strong’ ties are the few, more intimate relationships you have with your closer friends and family.

‘Weak’ ties are the many less intimate relationships you share with other people in your life.

Question 39

One theorist believes that language change is inevitable. Who are they? Amd what attitude do they adopt?

Answer 39

Crystal- adopts are more descriptivist attitude.

Question 40

What are some of the effects of grammatical change, seen in more contemporary texts?

Answer 40

A move towards more conversational structures, through:

• loss of inflections
• loss of Standard English rules
• loss of the complexity of sentences
• differing pronoun use e.g more use of ‘you’ and ‘we’, typical of spoken language.

Question 41

What is Descriptivism?

Answer 41

The interest in describing and explaining how language is really used- not interested in setting rules for people or regulating people’s language use.