(LANGUAGE METHODS) Discourse Flashcards
[Discourse Structure] List/Instructions
Key features: stages, step-by-step, bullet point, imperative verbs (bossy verbs).
E.g. Shopping List
[Discourse Structure] Problem-Solution
Persuading. Something wrong/nothing as good as it should be. E.g. Advertising, Maths Assessments.
[Discourse Structure] Analysis
Heavy detailed text. More factual. More third person, not first person.
E.g. Analysing pieces of text. Analyse theories. Academic Articles.
[Discourse Structure] Narrative
Tells a series of events. E.g. Fiction, Non-fiction. Jekyll and Hyde.
[Functions of Spoken Language] TRIPE
Transactional: main emphasis is on getting something done e.g. asking for directions.
Referential: Utterances that provide information, often referring to objects or concepts and relying on context. E.g. giving directions.
Interactional: Main emphasis is on social relationship between participants, often informal, e.g. a chat between friends
Phatic: Phatic communion or ‘small talk’ – devoid of real content but important for managing relationships, e.g. ‘lovely day’
Expressive: Express the speaker’s feelings or judgements, subjective, e.g. ‘English Language is the by far the most interesting A-level subject’
Labov’s Narrative Structure
Abstract: indication that a narrative is about to start and the speaker wants the listener’s attention.
Orientation: the who, what, why, where -setting the scene.
Complicating Action: the main body of the story with a range of detail.
Resolution: the final events, rounding off the narrative.
Evaluation: Additions to the story, highlighting attitudes or commanding attention.
Coda: a sign that the narrative is complete - might include a return to the starting time frame.
Types of Evaluation
External - added at the time of recounting, not part of the events.
Internal - occurred at the same time as the events being narrated.
[Spoken Language Features] Back-channeling
Non-verbal or verbal communication from the listener to show support to the speaker. E.g. smiling, nodding.
[Spoken Language Features] Discourse Marker
Signal a shift in conversation and topic areas; can also introduce a counter-argument. E.g. okay, so, but.
[Spoken Language Features] Fillers
Words used when thinking, pausing or to fill a gap in the sentence. Meaningless. E.g. um, er, like.
[Spoken Language Features] Hedging
Strategies to avoid directness or minimise a potentially face-threatening act. E.g. kind of, sort of, maybe.
[Spoken Language Features] False starts/repairs
False starts are when a speaker begins to speak pauses‚ then recommences. Repairs are corrections to something previously stated. Eg. Wait, no, hold on.
[Spoken Language Features] Skip Connectors
A discourse marker indicating a return to a previous topic. E.g anyway, back to what we were saying.
[Spoken Language Features] Fixed Expressions
Conventional and routine expressions - often metaphorical. E.g. at the end of the day. As a matter of fact.
[Spoken Language Features] Vague Expressions
Similar to hedging – deliberately non-committal expressions. E.g. Something‚ anything‚ thing
[Spoken Language Features] Ellipsis
More direct. E.g. just seen Jack. Drink?
[Spoken Language Features] Tag Questions
For reassurance/approval. E.g. we weren’t supposed to, were we?
[Spoken Language Features] Deixis
‘Pointing words’ – instead of a fixed referent‚ the meaning depends on the context. E.g. Yesterday‚ here‚ you
[Spoken Language Features] Non-fluency Features
A catch-all term for pauses‚ hesitations‚ repetition etc.. E.g. like.
[Spoken Language Features] Adjacency Pairs
Common pairs. E.g. How are you? I’m good thanks how are you?
[Spoken Language Features] Transition Relevance Point
A point where it is natural for another speaker to take a turn. E.g “so she went to her house.” “Oh I see”
[Conversation Analysis] Structure of Conversations
Opening
Turn-taking
Adjacency Pairs
Topics
Repairs
Feedback
Closings
[Conversation Analysis] Feedback
Verbal Responses
Oral signs
Non-verbal responses (nodding, smiling, eye-contact).
[Conversation Analysis] Closings
Pre-closing signals
Farewells
Summing up
Talk of meeting again (often Phatic)
Other Phatic expressions
Non-verbal signals
Accommodation Theory
When you change the way you speak around different people.
[Accommodation Theory] Divergence and Convergence
Divergence-> emphasis your accent.
Convergence-> changing your accent to match someone’s.
Cooperative Principle
Working together towards a common goal in a conversation.
[Cooperative Principle] Grice’s Maxims
Quantity - say neither more nor less than is required.
Relevance - be relevant to the ongoing context of the conversation.
Manner - avoid ambiguity, obscurity or disorder.
Quality - be truthful.
(Flouting the maxims can lead to conversational breakdown)
Face Theory
In different interactions we present different images of ourselves this image is referred to as face - ‘saving face’ or ‘losing face’.
[Face Theory] Two different types of face needs
Positive: the need to be liked and admired.
Negative: the need not to be imposed upon.
[Politeness Principle] Positive Politeness
- showing people they are liked and admired.
- making it clear we enjoy their company.
- paying compliments and taking interest.
[Politeness Principle] Negative Politeness
- avoid intruding on others.
- not imposing or intruding on their privacy.
- indirect, apologetic and regretful language.
- using formal terms of address.
