language and gender Flashcards
what was otto jesperson’s study and when was it from?
Language: It’s Nature, Development and Origin (1922)
what model does jesperson’s study fit into?
deficit model
what were some of Jesperson’s findings?
- women talk a lot and use half-finished sentences, as they speak before they have thought about what they will say
- suggests women link sentences with ‘and’ bc they are emotional rather than ‘grammatical’
- women have a smaller vocab than men, the words they use are the ‘indispensable small change of a language’
- women know their smaller vocab so well that they are more fluent in speaking and less hesitant than men
- women have a ‘preference for veiled and indirect expressions’ which prevent them from being as effective as men
- men are responsible for introducing new words to the language
- women often gain spoken mastery of foreign languages more easily than men, but when put to the test in translating a difficult text, men prove superior
what were the criticisms about Jesperson’s theory?
he didn’t do a proper scientific study, most points are from fiction
he used novels from Dickens, Bronte Sisters, Thomas Hardy etc, making the findings biased
he also quoted others who didn’t complete a proper study
summary of jesperson?
suggested male language forms were the ‘norm’, and the language of others (including women) were deficient
what was the name and date of Robin Lakoff’s study?
Language and Women’s Place (1975)
what model was Lakoff?
deficit model
what were the findings of Lakoff?
women speak less frequently
they show they are listening by using minimal responses (mmm, yeah)
speak more quietly than men and tend to use the higher pitch range of their voices
use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: Standard English and clear enunciation
use question intonation in declarative statements
overuse qualifiers (eg i THINK that)
use hedge
use tag questions
use super polite forms and apologise more
use more euphemisms and diminutives than men
use indirect commands and requests
summary of Lakoff
male language is stronger, more prestigious and more desirable
women’s speech can be distinguished
criticism of Lakoff
ideas based on observation– she studied her own speech and that of her peers, therefore making her study highly ethnocentric
stereotyped both genders
what are the 4Ds of gender theories?
DEFICIT MODEL - the way men speak is the ‘norm’, women are inferior
DOMINANCE MODEL - men dominate and control women
DIFFERENCE MODEL - men and women are from different cultures
DIVERSITY MODEL - how people speak is more influenced by their social class, age, culture, education or ethnicity etc, not just gender
what were Pamela Fishman’s studies called and when were they from?
Interaction: the Work Women Do (1983)
Conversational Insecurity (1990)
what model was Pamela Fishman?
dominance
findings from Interaction: the Work Women Do (1983)?
argues that conversation between the sexes sometimes fails, not because of anything inherent in the way women talk, but bc of how men respond / don’t respond
what did Pamela Fishman call the work that women do to keep a conversation going? (1977)
‘conversational shitwork’
what did Fishman say in Conversational Insecurity? (1990)
questions Lakoff’s theory
Fishman looks at questions as an attribute of interactions: women ask questions because of the power of these, not because of their personality weaknesses
Fishman also claims that in mixed- sex language interactions, men speak on average for twice as long as women
what was Dale Spender’s study called?
Man Made Language (1980)
what model was Dale Spender?
dominance
what were the findings of Dale Spender?
language determines the limits of our world
language is man-made (and therefore mainly under male control)
refers to a ‘woman’s language’ and says that men dominate women in language
suggests that language is patriarchal and
what are marked terms?
eg lady doctor, male nurse, actress
what are unmarked terms?
doctor, nurse, actor
what are asymmetric terms?
eg master/mistress, mr/mrs, lord/lady, king/queen
what are inclusive terms?
police officer, firefighter, headteacher
what is the generic he/man?
God, mankind
what are patronising terms?
dear, love, sugar, darling, honey, petal
what are insulting terms?
bitch, slut, pussy, bird, dick(head)
what was deborah tannen’s study called and when was it published?
You Just Don’t Understand, 1990
what model was deborah tannen?
difference
what did Deborah Tannen find?
- STATUS VS SUPPORT: Claims that men grow up in a world in which conversation is competitive and therefore strive to ensure that others do not dominate them. Women, however, use conversation to gain support and confirmation rather than status
- INDEPENDENCE VS INTIMACY: Claims that due to the fact that men are concerned with status, they focus more on independence. Women, on the other hand, think in terms of intimacy, seeking support and closeness from their partner
- ADVICE VS UNDERSTANDING: Men like to find solutions whereas women seek sympathy and understanding. Whilst a man might seek to find a way of solving a problem that their wife or girlfriend might have, Tannen claims that what the wife or girlfriend really wants is sympathy
- INFORMATION VS FEELINGS: Men exchange information briefly, for example in a telephone conversation to arrange a meeting. However, women will spend an hour on the telephone talking about feelings and emotions
- ORDERS VS PROPOSALS: Tannen claims that men make orders by using more direct imperatives whilst women suggest things in more indirect ways
- CONFLICT VS COMPROMISE: Whilst men are more likely to voice their opposition to a suggestion in the workplace or home, women are less likely to object and assert themselves. They might delay their opposition to the suggestions and complain later.
criticisms of tannen?
Criticisms: Tannen’s observations are largely anecdotal and cannot be said for all conjugal conversations, let alone mixed-gender interactions as a whole
what was Deborah Cameron’s 1995 study ?
Verbal Hygiene (1995 + 2012)
what were the findings of Verbal Hygiene?
Women are socialised to be feminine so their language must reflect this, they must have verbal hygiene
women are more verbally skilled than men
communicating matters to women
men are competitive, women are supportive
these differences lead to miscommunication between the two genders
what was Deborah Cameron’s 2008 study called and what was it about?
The Myth of Mars and Venus (2008)
cameron criticises the notion that there are innate differences in male and female speech
what was Janet Hyde’s theory and when was it from?
Gender Similarities Hypothesis, 2005
diversity model
- Suggests there are more similarities than differences between male and female language
- She found a negligible difference in most areas of communication between genders
- When there are differences, it is due to age, class, ethnicity, education, occupation, sexuality, politics etc
- Supports Cameron
what was Janet Holmes’ theory?
Women, Men and Politeness (1995)
- Said women prefer a cooperative style of conversation, in which everyone is actively encouraged to contribute. This is opposed to what could be considered a more competitive style of conversation by men
- Tag questions are used as a device to maintain discussion or to be polite. Challenged Lakoff and said that they were multi-functional not a sign of weakness
- Suggested that other features of ‘women’s’ speech, such as lexical hedges and fillers, are used for a variety of functions. To suggest they are simply markers of indecision is misleading
- Further suggested that in all female groups used far more compliments as further acts of politeness and solidarity than men did
difference model
what was Deborah Jones’ theory?
Deborah Jones, Gossip: Notes on Women’s Oral Culture (1980)
- Studied women’s gossip and placed it into 4 categories: house talk (exchange of information and resources connected with the female role as an occupation), scandal (judging behaviour of others, especially women), bitching (expression of women’s anger, make complaints in private or to other women) and chatting (everyday conversation, a form of female small talk)
what did pilkington do
1992
difference
studied language used by men and women in a bakery over 9 months.
women tended to be more polite. women’s conversations revolved around relationships and feelings. men frequently disagreed with each other and were less supportive with eachother
she concluded that men and women have different goals in conversations
criticism of pilkington
people may have known they were being recorded or she could have confounded results
what did o’barr and atkins say?
1980, but diversity model = forward thinking
challenged Lakoff’s ideas, studied/analysed language of witnesses in court
found differences in language were due to the individual’s position in the hierarchy of the court, rather than gendered difference
gender alone does not influence how powerful language is
what was judith butler’s theory
we should not view gender as binary. we ‘perform’ our gender, playing a role and conforming to social norms
who was gray
author of Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus, an influential non-fiction book from 1992 sold all around the world
suggests he though men and women communicate differently
criticisms of gray
Deborah Cameron said the differences were based on harmful stereotypes
what was coates theory
difference model
elaborated on jones’ study
she saw women’s language as supportive and cooperative.
in her 1998 book she said that features like ‘perhaps’ ‘sort of’ and ‘i think’ are used to respect
what did zimmerman and west do
1975
analysed 11 mixed gendered conversations and found that men interrupt more in conversations (46 by men, 2 by women)
men deny equal status to women during conversations
criticism = limited study
what did julia stanley do
argued that there was a negative semantic space for women
eg referred to as ‘working mothers’ not ‘working fathers’ etc
also compiled similar inventories of words and found that there were 220 denoting sexual promiscuity in women, compared to 26 for men
what did beattie say
1982
(criticises zimmerman and west) suggests individual characteristics may be more important.
also questions meaning of interruptions (does not necessarily reflect dominance, could reflect interest)
