Landscapes Flashcards
What are the 3 types of geography?
Human
Environmental
Physical
Physical geography
Is the study of the earth’s natural features. It is about the land and the sea and the atmosphere around us.
Human geography
Is the study of where and how people live.
Environmental geography
Is the combination of the physical (natural) environment and the human environment. It is the study of the surroundings in which people, plants and animals live.
Landforms
An individual surface feature of Earth identified by its shape (e.g. dune, plateau, canyon, beach, hill, river, valley)
Equator
The imaginary line that goes through the middle of the Earth
Tropic of capricorn
The line slightly below the equator half way through the half
Tropic of cancer
The line slightly above the equator halfway through the half
What are plates?
The earth’s crust is cracked into huge slabs which we call plates
Continental plates
The plates with land on top
Oceanic plates
The plates with oceans on top
Boundary
The point where each plate meets
The plates location and how they move
These plates sit on top of the molten rock or magma in the mantle.
The magma is moved around in a circular motion by convection currents, causing the plates to move too.
How do convection currents work?
When magma is heated in the mantle, it rises towards the crust.
As it rises it cools and moves sideways.
This causes friction between the magma and the crust and pulls the plates.
The magma cools and sinks back down to the mantle.
This process is constantly repeated.
3 types of motion at the boundaries
Sometimes, the plates collide, separate or slide past each other at the boundaries
Movement of plates
Continental drift
Study of plates
Plate tectonics
How do oceanic plates move themselves?
They collide with continental plates and subduct underneath and as it moves down it pulls the plate behind it with it. Eg. Like a chain dangling from the side of a table and as it falls it slides down moving the rest of it with it.
How does the subduction of oceanic plates support the convection currents in moving?
Due to the subduction of the oceanic plates, it creates a downward slope which acts as a barrier for the currents helping them move downwards.
Who made the continental drift theory?
Alfred Wegener
What did the continental drift theory have missing and what was the solution?
The theory didn’t have a reason to why the plates moved. The solution to this was the discovery of convection currents.
What is a trench?
A trench is located at the place where the subduction of the oceanic plate occurs and essentially what is made by the subduction of the oceanic plate under the continental plate.
Oceanic lithosphere
Associated with the oceanic crust. It refers to the ocean part of the Earth
Convergent boundaries and what they can cause and one example
Plates that collide with each other are called convergent boundaries.These cause fold mountains, volcanic mountains and earthquakes. An example is the Pacific ring of fire
Transform boundaries
Plates that slide horizontally passed each other are called passive or transform boundaries. These cause earthquakes. Example is San Andreas fault
Divergent boundaries
Plates that separate from each other are called divergent boundaries. These cause volcanic mountains, volcanic islands and mid-ocean ridges. An example is the Mid-Atlantic ridge.
Mountains
A mountain is a landform that rises high above the surrounding land
Mountain types/landforms
Fold mountains
Fault-block mountains
Dome mountains
Plateau mountains
Volcanic mountains
Fold mountains
Two continental plates collide, and rocks in the Earth’s crust buckle (move towards eachother causing stress), fold and lift up
Fault-block mountains (list the two examples)
Faults (cracks) in the Earth’s crust force some parts of rock up and others down. The crust breaks into blocks. Erosion shapes up the blocks into mountains
Eg. Sierra Nevada, Harz Mountains
Examples of fold mountains (list atleast 3)
Examples of fold mountains include:
The Himalayas in Asia
The Alps in Europe
The Andes in South America
The Rocky Mountains in North America
The Urals in Russia
Examples of fault-block mountains
Examples include:
The Sierra Nevada in North America
The Great Rift Valley in Africa
Characteristics of fold mountains
They can extend up to a great length but they have a small width. These are great sources of minerals. They are the most common type of mountain. World’s largest mountains ranges are fold mountains.
Characteristics of fault-block mountains
Fault-block mountains usually have a steep front side and then a sloping back. They are all in one line.
Dome mountains
Magma move up through crust.
The magma cools before erupting and hardens.
The rock layers over the hardened magma are bent upwards.
Erosion occurs leaving hard granite rock underneath.
What does the erosion do in the mountain building processes?
Erosion gets rid of outer layers forming a more refined shape and a more complex and hardened rock. It shapes the mountain up.
What plate boundaries cause mountain ranges?
Convergent plate boundaries - on-land mountain ranges
Divergent plate boundaries - Ocean mountain ranges called Oceanic spreading ridges
Plateau mountains
High areas of land that are large and flat
Pushed above sea level by tectonic forces or have been formed by layers of lava
Over billions of years, streams and rivers cause erosion, leaving mountains standing between valleys
Characteristics of plateau mountains
Raised, flat-surfaced areas bounded on one or more sides by cliffs or steep slopes
Examples of plateau mountains
Parts of the Great Dividing Range in Australia
The Colorado Plateau in the United States
Example of dome mountains
Ben Nevis in Scotland
Characteristics of dome mountains
A relatively flat, dissected surface ( a rough surface with cracks due to erosion) sloping slowly toward the surrounding low lands
Volcanic mountains
Hot molten rock (magma) is released through tiny gaps in the Earth’s crust called vents. The lava cools becoming hard igneous rock (the magma becomes lava outside of Earth’s crust ). Overtime the layers build up forming the mountain.
Examples of volcanic mountains
Mount Fuji in Japan and the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines
What 6 countries does the Himalayas pass through?
India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Bhutan and Nepal
How were the Himalayas formed?
India seperated from Pangea and then collided with Eurasia 40-50 million years ago
The two plates had similar rock mass so none could be subducted
The oceanic plate (with ancient sea creatures) crumpled and slowly uplifted
This is also why the top of the Himalayas was found to have ancient sea creatures near the peak
How old is the Himalayas?
Started forming 40-50 million years ago
Considered young mountains as they are still forming
How did Mount Everest form?
India collide with Eurasia
India (the smaller plate) crumpled and Uplifted forming Mount Everest and the Himalayas
Air rises with the Mountain and then cools forming rain or snow. This rain or snow travels back down the mountain weathering down the rocks, which shapes up the mountain
What are three factors that effect the shape of Mountains?
Tectonic plates colliding
Rain and gravity making the mountain shorter and more flat
Climate - Snow forms ice at sub zero temps. The ice starts flowing downwards due to it’s own weight. This is called glaciers. These slowly break off parts of the mountain. The taller the mountain the easier it breaks.
How did Mount Everest get so tall?
The two continental plates colliding made it huge to begin with
The snowline is high and the glaciers are small so they can’t break it down
Perfect windy conditions for the Mountain
How does time effect Mountains and how the Everest is taller than other mountains?
Rain and gravity can overtime make the mountains shorter and more flat. The Everest has been around for a less time than most other mountains making it least vulnerable to this
What is Snowline how is it formed?
The boundary beyond which there is permanent snow. It is formed when water vapour freezes. Away from the equator it is on sea level and near the equator one must go five kilometers before ice can form.
How much distance do the Himalayas cover?
They cover around 2400 kilometers
What is the climate like in the Himalays?
Climates range from tropical at the base of the mountains to everlasting snow and ice at the highest elevations. It is freezing cold near the peak
How is life in the Himilayas?
Rich in biodiversity
These eco-regions are connected so a threat to one of them is a threat to all
What is an Earthquake?
Sudden shaking in the ground
How are Earthquake measured?
On the ‘Richter Scale’ which measures using magnitudes
What causes Earthquakes?
When two plates collide they can get stuck. Pressure then builds up along the fault line as the plates are still trying to move. They then split and large amounts of energy is released as seismic waves causing violent shaking
What is the focus?
The point inside the Earth’s crust where the earthquake originates from. It is where the energy is released from
What is the epicentre?
The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus. The seismic waves are most powerful at the epicentre
Lithosphere
The crust and upper mantle of the Earth
Fault plane
The area of a tectonic
plate that moves vertically as a result of an earthquake; it is the part where one rock is not touching the other
Focus
The point where the
sudden movement of an
earthquake begins
Seismic waves
A wave of energy
that travel through the Earth as a result of an earthquake, explosion
or volcanic eruption
Epicentre
The point on the
Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
Primary wave
Also known as a
P-wave; the first waves to hit an area during an earthquake, which
cause a sudden jolt
Secondary wave
Also known as
a S-wave; the waves that arrive at an area after the P-waves, which cause a sustained up-and-down
movement
Tsunami
When an earthquake occurs on the ocean floor, it sets off waves that travel in all directions. These waves are called a tsunami
What are caves and how are they formed?
Caves are holes in cliffs.
Water containing sand and other materials get into the cracks of a cliff and the sand and other materials start to grind through the cliff making the cracks into a cave
What are arches and how are they formed?
An arch is a big hole in a cliff shaped in an arch shape. This leaves a bridge like structure remaining at the top of the cliff.
If the cave is formed in a headland, it may eventually break through to the other side forming an arch
What is a stack and how are they formed?
A stack is a tall column/cylinder of rock.
A stack is formed when the arch grows too big it can not carry the rock on top of it and it collapses. This leaves the headland on one side and the stack on the other
Headland
A point of land usually high and often with a sheer drop. It is in the shape of an lowercase ‘r’
What are stumps and how are they formed?
Stumps are the base of a stack. A stack is attacked at the base by weathering and erosion and water and it collapses to form the stumps
What is a beach?
A strip of land covered with sand and rocks and other materials, connected to a body of water
What is a bay?
A coastal body of water connected to a larger body of water
What does PQE stand for and what is it used on?
It stands for pattern, quantify and exception.
For an example of the usage of PQE look at W6 rivers ppt on schoolbox and go to slide 11
Pattern - PQE
Give a general overview of any patterns you can see (in other words, describe what the map is showing you) – 3 sentences
Quantify - PQE
This is where you provide evidence (numbers, statistics, amounts, or locations) that support the pattern you just outlined.
Exception - PQE
Identify anything that does NOT fit into your pattern
A river’s journey
Source, tributary, meander, confluence, river, levee, oxbow lake, channel, estuary, delta, mouth
Source - The river’s journey
The place where the river starts
Tributary - The river’s journey
A tributary is a freshwater stream that feeds into a larger stream or river
Meander - The river’s journey
Due to erosion, a gentle curve in the riverflow is made, called the meander
Confluence - The river’s journey
Where two or more watercourses join to form a single channel
River - The river’s journey
A large, natural stream of flowing water
Levee - The river’s journey
A natural or artificial wall that blocks water from going where people don’t want it to go
Oxbow lake - The river’s journey
A U-shaped lake or pool that forms when a wide meander of a river is cut off, creating a free-standing body of water
Channel - The river’s journey
a landform on which a relatively narrow body of water is situated and is to be spread across to a wider body of water
Estuary - The river’s journey
A transition area where the freshwater river or stream is about to meet it’s final destination
Delta - The river’s journey
A wetland area that forms as river waters empty into a larger body of water
Mouth - The river’s journey
The place where a river enters a lake, larger river, or the ocean and it is where the river ends
The 3 river processes
Erosion, Transport and Deposition
Erosion
Means wearing away. The river erodes the land it flows over
Transport
The river carries away the eroded material (load)
Deposition
As it reaches flatter land and loses energy, the river drops its load
4 methods of Erosion
Solution
Abrasion
Attrition
Hydraulic action
Solution erosion
The water dissolved soluble minerals from the bed and banks which helps to break them down
Abrasion erosion
The rocks and stones and sand in the water scrape away at the river bed and banks wearing them down
Attrition erosion
The rocks and stone wear off eachother by knocking into eachother
Hydraulic action
The water gets into the cracks of the bank and overtime breaks into the bank, wearing it away
Bed and banks
Land where water normally flows next to it or on top of it
Transport - The river’s processes
The river carries away eroded material -Dissolved material carried as a solution - you can’t see it. Small rock and soil particles are carried around as a suspension making the water look cloudy. Heavier materials get carried at the bottom which is called a bedload. Large materials roll along and smaller ones bounce along
What is the load and what does river process is it apart of?
The materials being carried away by the river This is apart of the transport process in the river’s process
Deposition - The river’s processes
As the river meets land it loses energy and drops/deposits its load. The deposited material is called sediment. Biggest stones deposited first and smaller after. Dissolved materials stay in the water and likely will join a lake or sea
Perennial river
A stream or a river that flows continuously through its river bed year-round is known as a perennial river
Intermittent river/stream
Is any river or stream that only flows during certain times of the year, and may not have any flowing surface water during the dry season.
How rainwater reaches the river
- Surface runoff - Some rainwater runs along the ground
- Infiltration - The rest of the water sinks into the ground
- Throughflow - As it soaks through the soil some water goes down the slope to the river
- Groundwater - The rest soaks down and fills up the pores and cracks in the rock
- Groundwater is also on the move so it flows freely to the river
- Together the surface runoff, throughflow and groundwater feed the river
Why can’t groundwater pass through that bottommost rock?
The rock is impermeable. Water can not pass through it so no groundwater is present there
Water table
The top of the groundwater
The coast
Is the dynamic (constantly changing) zone between land and sea
Describe the coast
They are dynamic locations. This is because water is constantly moving in the form of tides, waves and currents. Coastlines are also very windy and cause significant change to the landscape.
Coasts also feature constructive (deposition) and destructive (various forms of weathering/erosion) processes
The coastal zone 3 processes
Erosion, transportation and deposition
Two types of waves
Constructive and destructive
Swash
When a wave reaches the shore, the water that rushes up the beach is known as the swash
Backwash
The water that flows back towards the sea is known as the backwash
How is the type of wave determined?
The energy of the swash and backwash
How can the rate of erosion be calculated?
By the amount of energy a wave has
Destructive waves
Created in storm conditions
Created from strong waves when the wind is powerful and has been blowing for a while
They occur when wave energy is high and the wave has travelled over a long fetch
Characteristics of destructive waves
Weak swash and strong backwash
The strong backwash removes sediment from the beach
The waves are steep and close together
Constructive waves
Winds blowing over the ocean surface, which cause the water to move in a circular motion, creating small ripples that gradually grow and become larger
Formed in calm weather conditions
They form when wave energy is low and the wind has travelled for a short time
Characteristics of constructive waves
Strong swash and weak backwash
The strong swash brings sediments to build up the beach
The backwash is not strong enough to remove the sediment
The waves are low and further apart
4 types of coastal erosion
Attrition
Abrasion
Hydraulic action
Solution
Attrition - coastal erosion
Inside of waves bits of rock get worn down by knocking against each other. They get smaller and smaller eventually ending up as shingle (pebbles) and sand
Hydraulic action - coastal erosion
The waves force water into cracks in the rock.
That helps to break it up
Abrasion - coastal erosion
The waves fling sand and pebbles against the rock . This wears it away like sandpaper
Solution - coastal erosion
The waves dissolve soluble material from the rock
When did aboriginals arrive in Australia?
Around 65-80 thou years
How do aboriginals tell stories?
Through imagery - Rock art
Rock art
Vital part of First Nations people
Used by them to show how humans lived during that time
Petroglyphs (rock engravings) and pictographs (drawings) are key components
Oldest human art form (30,000 years ago)
Why is National Territory’s Kakadu National Park known?
5,000 different rock art is present here
Rock art forms
Rock art consists of paintings, drawings, engravings, stencils, bas-relief carvings and figures made of beeswax in rock shelters and caves. It can take two main forms: engravings (petroglyphs) and paintings or drawings (pictographs)
How are petroglyphs formed?
By removing rock through pecking, hammering or abrading in order to leave a negative impression
How are pictographs formed?
By applying pigments to the rock. Drawings use dry colours, such as charcoal, clay, chalk and ochre. Paintings use wet pigments made from minerals, which are applied by finger or with brushes made from chewed sticks or hair
Where are Petroglyphs and Pictographs located?
Petroglyphs created on any Stony surface
Pictographs survive only in more sheltered areas, such as overhangs or caves
Seven heritage places on the National Heritage
Kakadu National Park, Koonalda Cave, Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, the Tasmanian Wilderness and the West Kimberley
How was the Uluru formed?
Around 500 million years ago, the whole area became covered in sea. Sand and mud fell to the bottom and covered the seabed. The weight of the new seabed turned the fans into rock. The sandy fan became sandstone (Uluru) while the rocky fan became conglomerate rock (Kata Tjuta)
Fan
A fast-moving stream piles onto a flat plain
What were the main changes to the Uluru?
400 million years ago, the sea disappeared. Rocks folded and tilted as the earth’s tectonic plates shifted. Kata Tjuta tilted slightly and Uluru tilted 90 degrees.
Over the last 300 million years, the softer rocks eroded away, leaving the spectacular forms of Uluru and Kata Tjuta behind
What type of rock is the Uluru?
Arkose
Uluru characteristics
The surface is actually flaky red with grey patches. The flakes are bits of rock left after water and oxygen have decayed minerals in the rock. The red is the rusting of iron found naturally in arkose, and the grey is the rock’s original colour. You can see Uluru’s original grey inside many of its caves
Kata Tjuta characteristics
Kata Tjuta is made from a conglomerate of pebbles and boulders cemented by sand and mud. Most of the pieces are granite and basalt, which give the conglomerate a plum-pudding effect
How is the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park conserved?
Using controlled fires
encourage bush foods to grow and flushes out game animals, ensuring that Anangu have plenty to eat. It also reduces fuel loads. The burning takes place in Winter when temperatures are low
Struggles of the Park that damaged it significantly
During the 1940s rainfall was good and plants flourished. But in 1950, a fire fed by fuel from 20 years of uninhibited growth burnt about a third of the park’s vegetation. In 1976, two more fires burnt out more than 75% of the park
Mala conservation
Work with the Anangu people to conserve the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park
What feral animals can harm the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park and what do they do?
Camels, rabbits, foxes and cats. These species can drain scarce water sources, kill native animals and eat plants that are important for ecosystem health
Landscapes
The visible appearance of an area made from different environmental aspects that have evolved over time
Himalayan landscapes
Near 0 feet = Agriculture 5000 mm of rain
Near 0-1 thousand feet = Tropical zone (normal trees) near 4000 mm of rain
Near 1-3 thousand feet = Subtropical zone near 2250 mm of rain
Near 3-4 thousand feet =
Temperate zone near
1250 mm of rain - Includes the
Near 4-5 thousand feet = Sub Alpine zone near 1400 mm of rain
Near 5-6 thousand feet = Alpine zone (the last zone with trees in them; all of the other zones before had trees too) near 600 mm of rain
Near 6-7 thousand feet = Snow less than 500 mm of rain
What forests does the Himalayas have?
Montane Grasslands and Shrublands
Temperate Coniferous Forest
Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests
Tropical and Sub-tropical Broadleaf Forests
Spatial Association
How two geographic phenomenons are distributed/located/connected
Volcano
Large mountains which form from tectonic plates and magma escaping from gaps in the Earth’s crust
Parts of a volcano and where they are located (refer to google search diagram)
Layers of ash and lava (in the rock area which makes up most of the volcano on the inside)
Volcanic bomb (molten rock released from the volcano; released from the volcano)
Crater (the summit of the volcano)
Secondary cone (a secondary magma stream to the right, but the opening of it)
Secondary vent (a secondary magma stream to the right)
Conduit (the main stream of lava in the middle)
Lava chamber (storage of lava at the bottom)
Fumarole (a side stream on the surface)
Craters - Volcanoes
A bowl-shaped top of a volcano which forms from the peak being broken off
Magma Chamber - Volcanoes
A large reservoir for magma at the bottom of a volcano
Conduit - Volcanoes
A long narrow channel that connects the magma chamber to the surface of a volcano
Fumarole - Volcanoes
A side stream which is a vent that emits steam, gas, and other materials
Shield volcanoes
These volcanoes have a cone shape an form in the ocean from divergent plate boundaries
Asthenosphere
Area full of magma in the Earth
Destrcutive/Convergent plate margin
When an oceanic and continental plate collide and form stratovolcanoe volcanoes
Constructive/Divergent plate margin
When two plates move apart and form shield volcanoes
4 types of materials that are ejected from craters in the atmosphere
Thick ash
Volcanic bombs
Lava
Gas
Composite/Stratovolcanoe
Tall, steep, cone-shaped volcanoes and are formed from alternating layers of lava or ash and are simply normal volcanoes
Cinder cones volcanoes
Small, steep, cone-shaped volcanoes which usually only have one vent of lava
Impacts of volcanoes and explain each one
Property damage (lava can burn through houses and materials of buildings)
Water pollution (materials from volcanoes going into the water and killing sea life)
Soil fertility (ash is rich in minerals providing perfect fertile/soil/nutrients for plants)
Geothermal energy (volcanoes provide clean and sustainable energy for electricity generating and heating)
Longshore drift
A process of transportation that moves eroded material along the coastline in the same direction of the prevailing wind where the swash carries sediments up the beach and the backwash down the beach
Groyne
A wall that prevents the sediments from being transported to another area so that the beach doesn’t get fully eroded and the same materials keep on cycling through
Why are beaches in Iceland black?
As the magma turns into lava once risen to the surface. It lands on the ocean and solidifies and once it erodes it leaves black volcanic rock behind. If the land is made of black volcanic rock then the sand will be too
Tombolo
Spits that join 2 pieces/areas of land
Formation of Sand Dunes
- Sand is moved to the beach in the swash
- Wind Blows sand to foredune (front of Sand dune - closest to the sea)
- Grasses adapted to exposure to salt and wind
- Vegetation capture sand helping build the dune
- Small shrubs and shrubs form backdune to add protection from salt and wind
- Area between dunes = Interdune corridor
Prevailing Winds
The main direction from which the wind blows
How are Spits formed?
Prevailing Winds make waves move diagonally and builds up sand and sediments which travel the way of the waves. The stop and build up and hooks are formed due to secondary waves. Salt then loads up on it. it is formed in a bay between two headlands
Guspate Spits
Projections of a beach into an enclosed or semi-enclosed laggon
Spit
A narrow strip of Sand land that is attached to a coast from one side
Iniet
A narrow body of water that spreads out into larger seas from both sides
How do tsunamis occur
Volcanic eruptions or underwater landslides
Is a tsunami one big wave, or several waves?
Several waves
How fast can tsunamis travel?
Up to 800 km/h and can travel faster than jet planes
Japanese 2011 Tsunami
It happened in 2011 and the earthquake that caused it was an 8.9 magnitude. It killed/lost around 20,000
Social impacts of the Japanese 2011 tsunami (and tsunamis in general)
People dying
Children losing their parents’ location
Homelessness
Economic impacts of the Japanese 2011 tsunami (and tsunamis in general)
Cost to rebuild
Cost of international trade
Cost of people’s homes
Poorer countries not being able to protect compared to high income countries
Environmental impacts of the Japanese 2011 tsunami (and tsunamis in general)
Loss of homes
Loss of buildings
Loss of natural structures
Liquefication
When soil loses strength and behaves like a liquid when mixed with groundwater - occurs usually during the earthquake
12 Apostles location and what it is
Located in Australia, Victoria, the Great Ocean Road, is a group of stacks formed near the coast of the Great Ocean Road
12 Apostles formation
Formed from surrounding caves which rise into archs which rise too high and collapsing, leaving a headland and a stack behind. This is the erosion of limestone rock. They were originally part of mainland AUS millions of years ago
History of the number of the 12 Apostles
Originally 9 stacks but 2 eroded leaving 7 and the parts of rocks nearby will create new stacks. It is said that there are 5 apostles eroded underwater which make it the 12 apostles
