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BIO311D: Biology > LAND PLANTS, STRUCTURE, REPRODUCTION, HORMONES > Flashcards

LAND PLANTS, STRUCTURE, REPRODUCTION, HORMONES Flashcards

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1
Q

What did plants evolve from?

A

Plants evolved from green algae, in particular, charophytes

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2
Q

What morphological and molecular evidence proves that plants evolved from green algae?

A

Plants share these traits ONLY with charophytes:

  1. Rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins
  2. Structure of flagellated sperm
  3. Phragmoplast formation

Comparison of nuclear, chlorophlast, and mitochondrial DNA indicate that charophytes share a common ancestor with plants (plants are not descendents)

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3
Q

What are the 5 derived traits of plants?

A
  1. Alternation of generations
  2. Multicellular, dependent embryos
  3. Walled spores produced in sporangia
  4. Multicellular gametangia
  5. Apical meristems
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4
Q

What are the steps to plant alternaltion in generations?

A
  1. Gamete is fertilized into a diploid zygote (2n)
  2. Zygote undergoes mitosis and becomes sporophyte (2n)
  3. Sporophyte undergoes meiosis and becomes a spore (n)
  4. Spore (n) undergoes mitosis and becomes a gametophyte (n)
  5. Gametophyte (n) undergoes mitosis and becomes a gamete (n)
  6. Gamete (n) combines with another gamete (n) from another plant, forming a diploid zygote (2n) through fertilization
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5
Q
A
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6
Q

What adaptations enabled plants to move to land?

A
  1. Sporopollein, a durable polymer which prevented zygotes from drying out
  2. Cuticles, which covered the epidermis, acting as a waterproof layer and protected the plant from microbial attack
  3. Stoma, which are specialized pores which supported photosynthesis by allowing the exchange of CO2 and O2
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7
Q

What are the 2 main plant groups?

A
  1. Bryophytes (nonvascular plants)
  2. Vascular plants
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8
Q

What 3 phyla of small, herbaceous plants represent bryophytes?

A
  1. Hepatophyta - liverworts
  2. Bryophyta - mosses
  3. Antherocerophyta - hornworts
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9
Q

What are key characteristics of bryophytes?

A
  1. Short
    1. Height constrained by lack of vascular tissue
  2. Rhizoids
    1. Anchor gametophytes to substrate
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10
Q

What are the 2 main types of vascular tissues?

A
  1. Xylem
    1. Distributes water and minerals
  2. Phloem
    1. Distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products
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11
Q

What smaller clades make up vascular plants?

A
  1. Seedless vascular plants
  2. Vascular plants with seeds
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12
Q

What are examples of seedless vascular plants?

A
  1. Lycophytes - club mosses and relatives
  2. Monilophytes - ferns and relatives
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13
Q

What are examples of vascular plants with seeds?

A
  1. Gymnosperms - seeds not enclosed in chambers (“naked” seeds)
  2. Angiosperms - flowering plants
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14
Q

What form is dominant for bryophytes?

A

Gametophytes

Which means that sporophytes are reduced and dependent on gametophytes for nutrition

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15
Q

What form is dominant for seedless vascular plants?

A

Sporophytes

Which means that gametophytes are reduced, however, independent (free-living and photosynthetic)

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16
Q

What form is dominant in vascular plants with seeds?

A

Sporophytes

Which means that gametophytes are reduced and dependant on surrounding sporophyte tissue for nutrition

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17
Q

What do sporophytes produce?

A

Spores

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18
Q

What do gametophytes produce?

A

Gametes

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19
Q

What are the components of an ovule in gymnosperms?

A
  1. Megasporangium (2n)
  2. Megaspore (n)
    1. Produced by meiosis
  3. Protective integuments (2n)
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20
Q

What are the male gametophytes in angiosperms?

A

Pollen grains

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21
Q

How does the male gametophyte develop?

A
  1. Microsporocyte (2n) underdoes meiosis and forms 4 microspores (n)
  2. Microspores (n) undergo mitosis and form the male gametophyte with pollen (n)
    1. Genetive cells forms 2 sperm
      1. Nucleus of tube cell inside
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22
Q

What are the female gametophytes in angiosperms?

A

Embryo sac

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23
Q

How does the female gametophyte develop?

A
  1. Megasporangium (embryo sac formation) within each ovule
  2. Megasporangium enlarge and undergo meiosis, producing 4 haploid megaspores (only 1 survives)
  3. Integument layers surround each megasporangium
  4. Nucleus of surviving megasporangium divides by mitosis 3 times, resulting in 1 large cell with 8 haploid nuclei that is divided by membranes to form the embryo sac
  5. 2 cells called synergids (located near micropyle) flank egg and help attract and guide pollen tube to embryo sac; 3 antipodal cells of unknown function are at opposite end of the sac; 2 polar nuclei share cytoplasmof large central cell of embryo sac → 8 nuclei contained within 7 cells
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24
Q

What are the steps of pollination?

A
  1. Pollen grain lands on stigma
  2. Tube cell elongates and pushes pollen tube into tissues of host flower
  3. Pollen tube popels 2 sperm cells in from until they reach embryo sac within ovule, where double fertilization occurs
  4. Each ovule develops into a seed
  5. Ovary develops into fruit, enclosig seed(s)
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25
Q

What is double fertilization?

A

In double fertilization, 2 sperm reach the female gametophyte: 1 fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote, and the other fertilized the 3 polar nuclei, forming a triploid (3n) nucleus which develops into an endosperm

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26
Q

Angiosperm diagram:

A
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27
Q

What are the evolutionary adaptations of seeds?

A

The seed enters dormancy, which increases its chances that germination will occur at an advantageous time and place

28
Q

What are the steps for the life cycle of a vascular plant with seeds?

A
  1. Sperm (n) and egg (n) fertilize, forming a seed (2n)
  2. Seed (2n) becomes a sporophyte (2n)
  3. Sporophyte (2n) undergoes meiosis, forming megaspore (n) and microspore (n)
  4. Megaspore (n) becomes megagametophyte (n) and microspore (n) becomes microgametophyte (n)
  5. Megagametophyte (n) becomes an egg (n) and microgametophyte (n) becomes a sperm (n)
29
Q

What are the mechanisms of asexual reproduction?

A
  1. Fragmentation - separation of parent plant into parts that can develop into a whole plant
  2. Apomixis - asexual reproduction of seeds without pollination or fertilization
30
Q

Advantages to sexual reproduction?

A
  1. Produces variation in offspring
  2. Advantageous in unstable environments
  3. Self-fertilization ensures every ovule will develop into a seed
31
Q

Disadvantages to sexual reproduction?

A
  1. Only passes on half its alleles
32
Q

Advantages to asexual reproduction?

A
  1. No need for pollinator
  2. Allows plants to pass on all its genetic legacy
  3. Advantageous when plant it suited to environment
33
Q

Disadvantages to asexual reproduction?

A
  1. Genotypic uniformity
  2. Greater risk of local extinction if catostrophic environmental change
34
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by wind?

A

Small inconspicuous flowers which lack color and scent and have large amounts of pollen

35
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by bees?

A

Typically colored flowers (blue, red) with fragrant scent and UV markings which lead to the nectar

36
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by moths?

A

Flowers with a sweet fragrace and are usually white or yellow (aid night pollinators)

37
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by butterflies?

A

Brightly colored flowers with a sweet fragrance

38
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by bats?

A

Light-colored flowers which are aromatic

39
Q
A
40
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by flies?

A

Fleshy, odoriferous (rotting odor) flowers

41
Q

What types of flowers are pollinated by birds?

A

Colorful (red, yellow) flowers with little odor and sugary petals often fused into the floral tube

42
Q

Plant hormones affect the following by altering what?

A

Affect:

  1. Cell division
  2. Cell elongation
  3. Cell differentiation

By altering:

  1. Gene expression
  2. Existing enzyme activity
  3. Membrane properties
43
Q

What is the function of auxin?

A
  1. Stimulate stem elongation
  2. Enhances apical dominance
  3. Ehnances root branching
44
Q

What is the function of cytokinesis?

A
  1. Stiimulates cell division in roots and shoots
  2. Modifies apical dominance
45
Q

Why do pruned plants get bushier?

A

Because auxin inhibits auxillary bud growth and cytokinesis stimulates auxillary bud growth with auxin removed

46
Q

What is the function of abscisic acid (ABA)?

A
  1. Prevents seed germination
  2. Promotes stoma closure
47
Q

What is the function of ethylene?

A
  1. Inhibits stem elongation
  2. Promotes lateral expansion (i.e. stem thickness)
  3. Promotes horizontal growth
48
Q

What is the acid growth hypothesis?

A
  1. Plant cell growth dependent on auxin
  2. Auxin activates proton pump, making cell wall acidic
  3. Acidity activates growth-specific enzymes which hydrolyze bonds holding to cellulose
  4. Bonds are broken, loosening the cell wall, increasing water reuptake, increasing cell size
49
Q

What is used to determine which responses are mediated by specific photoreceptors?

A

Action spectrum, which depicts the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving certain processes

50
Q

What are the 2 classes of light receptors?

A
  1. Blue-light receptors
  2. Phytochrome receptors
51
Q

How does blue-light affect plants?

A

Blue light initiates a variety of plant responses

  1. Elongation of embryo shoots
  2. Stoma opening
  3. Phototropism - the movement of shoot towards/away from the light

Blue light also induces curvature of develping shoots of grass

52
Q

What is the fuction of phototropin?

A

Phototropin is a protein kinase involved in mediating plant responses to blue light

53
Q

What is the function of phytochrome?

A

Phytochrome regulates many of a plant’s responses to light throughout its life (e.g. seed germination and shade avoidance)

54
Q

How does the phytochrome function in seed germination?

A

Phytochromes are responsible for opposing the effects of red light (increases germination) and far-red light (inhibits germination) by allowing red light to trigger the conversion of Pr to Pfr and far-red to trigger the conversion of Pfr to Pr

55
Q

How does the phytochrome function in shade avoidance?

A

Phytochromes provide the plant with information about light quality. If a tree is shaded, ratio shifts in favor of Pr because the forest canopy screens out more red light than far-red, allowing far-red light to pass

56
Q

What is a plant’s first line of defense against pathogens?

A

Barriers presented by the epidermis and periderm

57
Q

What happens when the first line of defense fails?

A

If there are mechanical wounds or natural openings (e.g. stoma), then pathogens can enter

58
Q

What are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)?

A

PAMPs are molecular sequences which are specific to certain pathogens

59
Q

What is PAMP triggered immunity?

A

PAMP triggered immunity is when PAMP recognition leads to a chain of signaling events which lead to the production of antimicrobial chemicals and the toughening of the cell wall

60
Q

What are effectors?

A

Effectors are pathogen-encoded proteins that cripple a plant’s innate immune system, suppressing PAMP triggered immunity

61
Q

What is effector triggered immunity?

A

Effector triggered immunity occurs when the plant’s defenses are made up of disease resistant genes (R), which code for an R protein that can be activated by a specific effector, activating the plant’s defenses by triggering signal transduction

62
Q

What are the 2 types of effector triggered immunity?

A
  1. Hypersensitive response
  2. Systematic acquired resistance
63
Q

What is hypersensitive response?

A

Hypersensitive response is the local cell and tissue death that occurs at and near an infectio site

64
Q

What is systemic acquired resistance?

A

Systemic acquired resistance arises from the plant-wide expression of defense genes and is a non-specific method which provides protection from pathogens for days

65
Q

What is synthesized around the infection site in systemic acquired resistence?

A

Methylsalicylic acid, which is then carried through the phloem and converted so salicylic acid, triggering the defense system to rapidly respond to another infection

BIO311D: Biology (14 decks)

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