LABS 1-6 (PART 1) Flashcards
Monosaccharide
Simple sugar (eg. Glucose)
Disaccharide
Two joined monosaccharides by glycosidic bonds (eg. Sucrose)
Polysaccharide
Many monosaccharides joined together (eg. Starch)
Peptide
Very short chain of amino acids (less than 20)
Polypeptides
Long chains of amino acids up to 100
Proteins
Hundreds of amino acids folding into 3 dimensional structure
Lipids
Phospholipids, steroids, triglycerides. Triglycerides used to store metabolic energy and these fats consists of glycerol molecule with three fatty acid molecules attached
Positive control
Presence of substance
Negative control
Absence of substance
What is the purpose of having controls
Controls are used as a way to compare within other test results (samples) that are measured. Controls can increase the validity of experimental findings by being able to directly observe findings
Structural differences between glucose and starch
Glucose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) whereas starch is a polysaccharide made up of repeating units of glucose
Structural differences between peptides and protein
Peptides are short chains of amino acids and are less complex. Proteins are larger and longer molecules made up of many peptide subunits
Structural differences between saturated and unsaturated FA
Saturated fatty acids lack double bonds between carbons and are solid at room temperature (animal origin; butter). Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbons and are liquid at room temperature (plant based; olive oil)
Solute
Substance dissolved in solution
Solvent
Water in most cases and is the substance that dissolves the solute
Diffusion
Particles move from higher concentration to lower concentration
Osmosis
Diffusion of water and particles move from lower concentration to higher concentration through a semi-permeable membrane
What are the purposes of positive and negative controls in the experiment
Provides a means of comparison for the dialysis tubing and beaker water samples to determine which solutes diffused through tubing membrane
In the cellular transport lab, what must ALWAYS be put into a negative control
20 drops of distilled water
If testing for glucose, what two substance must go into positive control
20 drops of glucose and benedict’s reagent
In cellular transport lab, which substance was able to diffuse through the dialysis tube
Glucose turned orange (positive control color) after 10/20 minutes, and sodium chloride turned white (positive control color) after 10/20 minutes
In the cellular transport lab, why are some substances able to pass through the membrane while others cannot:
Due to their molecular properties. Sodium chloride in this case, is an ionic compound and is also small enough and therefore can pass through the pores of the dialysis tube easily. Whereas proteins are larger molecules so it is difficult to pass through and did not diffuse
In the cellular transport lab, was there any evidence that osmosis had occurred?
There is a evidence that osmosis had occurred, due to the weight gain of the dialysis tube and after placed in the beaker of water for 10 minutes. The water molecules moved into the dialysis tube to the higher concentration (weight gain of 0.07g)
In the cellular transport lab, was there any evidence that osmosis had occurred?
There is a evidence that osmosis had occurred, due to the weight gain of the dialysis tube and after placed in the beaker of water for 10 minutes. The water molecules moved into the dialysis tube to the higher concentration (weight gain of 0.07g)
In the cellular transport lab, why did the results differ after the 10 and 20 minute intervals for the cellular transport lab
As time passes, cells continue to travel until equilibrium is reached
Active transport
Particles moving against concentration gradient using ATP
In the cellular transport lab, which culture of yeast demonstrated diffusion
Both the alive and dead yeast demonstrated diffusion
In the cellular transport lab, which culture of yeast demonstrated active transport
Only the alive yeast demonstrated active transport
In the cellular transport lab, why were dead yeast cells examined
Dead yeast cells act as a control group to compare with live cells
Blue stained yeast
Indicates dead yeast
Clear yeast
Indicates alive yeast since the living cells enzymatically reduce the dye to a colorless product and become unstained
Can diffusion and osmosis occur at the same time
If a semipermeable membrane is present, osmosis and diffusion can occur at the same time
Can active and passive transport occur simultaneously
Yas
Power switch
Turns on the microscope powered by electricity
Illuminator
Path of light that goes through the microscope
Intensity control
Adjusts the intensity of the light coming from lamp
Condenser
Concentrates and focus light from below stage onto microscope
Stage
Slide is placed on the stage and has a spring loaded clip
Iris diaphragm lever
Controls contrast of image by altering size of opening of diaphragm
Objective lens
Relays the image of the object to the eye piece (4x, 10x, 40x)
Nose piece
Mounts the objective lens and revolves
Ocular lens
Magnifies the image produced by the microscope (10x)
Course focus knob
Adjusts height of stage
Fine focus knob
Sharpen the focus quality of image
Stage control
Maneuvers the stage
Where are epithelial tissues in animals found
Lining and covering other tissues
Where are epithelial tissues in plants found
Only on the outermost layer of cells consisting of only one cell type
3 basic cell types of epithelium
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Stratified squamous epithelium characteristic/function/location in body (4)
- Flat/thin
- Centrally located nucleus
- Diffusion, filtration, protection
- Found in lining of esophagus, mouth, vagina
Simple cuboidal epithelium characteristic/function/location in body (4)
- Cube shaped
- Centrally located nucleus
- Secretion, absorption
- Found in ducts and secretory portions of small glands and kidney tubules
Simple columnar epithelium characteristic/function/location in body (4)
- Taller than wide
- Elongated nucleus
- Absorbs/secretes mucus and enzymes
- Ciliated tissues found in bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus. Non ciliated found in digestive tract and bladder
What are the two ARRANGEMENTS of epithelial cells common in body
Simple (1 layer) and stratified (more than 1 layer) epithelial tissue
Function of squamous epithelial cells of buccal cavity (6)
- Protect against abrasion; infection/injury
- Selective diffusion
- Secretion of lubricating fluid
- Filtration
- Absorbtion
- Sensation
Functions of cuboidal cells in kidney
Absorption and secretion of molecules
Functions of epithelial tissue in humans
Protection, absorption, filtration, diffusion and osmosis
What cell structure keeps plant cells rigid
Cell wall
When stained with methylene blue (buccal cell) and haemalum acid (onion cell), the nuclei were the only cellular structures that stained. This has to do with the stains being cationic (positively charged). What charge do you think the nuclei are in order to be stained?
Negative (anionic)
Connective tissue
Helps form framework of organs by connecting various tissues that make up organs and are composed of a small number of cells and large amounts of extracellular matrix
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibers and ground substance
3 fibers of the ECM:
- Collagen
- Elastic
- Reticular
Collagen fiber
Strength and flexibility
Elastic fiber
Strength and elasticity
Reticular fiber
Contains type III collagen fibers that branch and interwoven together for support
Ground substance
Gelatinous matrix that fills space between fibers and cell (~90% water)
3 broad categories of connective tissue
- Proper
- Supportive
- Fluid
Connective tissue proper
Subdivided into loose and dense depending on arrangement of fibers within matrix
Loose connective tissue
Areolar, reticular, adipose
Adipose
Composed of fat cells (adipocytes) for energy storage and contain large globules of fat, found under skin surrounding organs between muscle fibers in pericardium
Areolar
Provides support and helps protect tissues, organs, and muscles found under epithelia of skin, mucous membrane, capillaries and organs
Dense connective tissue
Regular and irregular categories and can resist stretching
Dense regular
Has fibers arranged on one plane able to resist tension in a single direction. Found in ligaments and tendons
Dense irregular
Has fibers arranged in random ways and can resist tension from many different directions. Found in the dermis
Supportive connective tissue supportive
Cartilage and bone; ECM is gel-like which allows resilience to the structure it supports
3 types cartilage
Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
Hyaline cartilage function
Helps move bones smoothly past each joint, found in ribcage, nose, and covers bones of action point at joints
Fibrocartilage function
Acts as cushion within joints to manage compressive forces and reduce stress, found in disks between vertebrae, meniscus in knees
Elastic cartilage function
Provides both strength and elasticity to certain parts of body such as the ear, found in larynx, external ear, epiglottis
2 types of bones
Compact and spongy (cancellous); ECM is rigid allowing for support and protection of tissues and organs
2 types bones
Compact and spongy (cancellous)
Fluid connective tissue
Blood and lymph; Lacks fibers and links different parts of body together
Blood
Transport O2 and nutrients to lungs and tissues found in blood vessels, heart chambers, lungs
Why is hyaline cartilage smooth
Due to their functions of helping bones move smoothly each other in joints
Where is elastic and fibrocartilage found in body
Elastic cartilage typically found in external ear and epiglottis. Fibrocartilage is found in knee joints, between each vertebrae, pubic symphysis
Plan diagram
No cellular detail and consists of only lines to show boundaries
What type of connective tissue is found in frog intestine slide and what function does it play?
Areolar connective tissue wraps and cushions organs and plays a role in immune response and holds/conveys tissue fluids
What type of epithelial tissue is found in frog intestine and where
Columnar epithelium located in the middle surrounding the lumen (lining of intestine) for absorbing and secreting mucus and enzymes
What are the two layers of smooth muscle in frog intestine and what is the difference
Longitudinal smooth muscle and circular smooth muscle. Longitudinal smooth muscle contraction causes intestine to shorten and expand, whereas circular smooth muscle contracts and relaxes to adjust the size of the lumen. They both work together in the movement and digestion of food
Meninges
3 membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord consisting of a tough outer dura mater, a thin inner pia mater, and a middle arachnoid mater
Ventricle functions of brain
Filled with CSF for mechanical and chemical protection and to exchange nutrients and waste between blood and nervous tissue
Lateral ventricle location
Situated laterally in the anterior part of forebrain
3rd ventricle location
Narrow cavity superior to hypothalamus between left and right halves of thalamus
4th ventricle location
Between brain stem and cerebellum (posteroinferior to the colliculi)
Frontal lobe function
Voluntary control of skeletal muscles
Parietal lobe function
Conscious sensory perception (touch, taste, pain, temperature)
Occipital lobe function
Conscious visual perception
Temporal lobe function
Hearing, smell, learning, memory, visual recognition, emotional behavior
Cerebrum
Responsible for perception, interpretation of sensory impulses and association of impulses concerned with emotional and intellectual processes
Midbrain function
Reflex center for movement of eyeballs and head in response to sight and sound impulse
Pons function
Subconscious motor center, breathing regulation and relay of sensory information
Medulla oblongata function
Pathway for motor and sensory fibers between brain and spinal cord. Consists of 3 vital centers; cardiac center for heart beat, respiratory center for rate and depth of breathing, vasomotor center for regulating blood pressure, and reflex center for swallowing, sneezing, vomiting
Cerebellum function
Coordination of muscular movement, maintenance of posture, and equilibrium
Spinal cord function
Reflex center and conduction pathway
Thalamus function
Interpretation center for some sensory impulses and relay for sensory impulses for cerebral cortex
Superior colliculis function
Combines sensory information about visual space, auditory space, ad somatosensory space
Inferior colluculis function
Auditory brain stem pathway
At the cellular level, what is the difference between white matter and gray matter that results in their color differences
Gray matter is the region with many cell bodies and dendrites and white matter is region with many axons. White matter is white caused by presence of myelin (lipid covering on axon) created by specialized cells called oligodendrocytes and gray matter is not necessarily gray as it can be pink due to blood content or even slightly tan depending on how long the tissue had been preserved
Olfactory
Smell
Optic
Vision and pupillary response
Oculomotor
Movement of eyes itself and pupillary response
Trochlear
Movement of eyes up and down
Trigeminal
General sensation, chewing of muscles and jaw movement
Abducens
Movement of eye side to side
Facial
Taste and movement of facial muscles
Vestibulocochlear
Hearing and balance
Glossopharyngeal
Taste and touch in pharynx and movement of muscles that aid in swallowing
Vagus
Taste and movement of muscles controlling larynx and pharynx
Accessory
Supply motor fibers to trapezius and sternocleidomastoid
Hypoglossal
Innervate muscles of tongue
Names mnemonic for the cranial nerves
Oh Oh Oh To Take A Family Vacation, Go Vegas And Hawaii/On On On They Travelled And Found Voldemort Guarding Very Ancient Houses
Types mnemonic for cranial nerves
Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Believes Big Brains Matter Most
True or false, spinal cord relays sensory information from the brain to the rest of the body
False, spinal cord transmits nerve signal from brain to the rest of the body and carries sensory information from body to brain
Describe the neural pathway for a patellar tendon stretch reflex
When the hammer/mallet strikes the patellar tendon, the muscle fibres stretch and stimulate the sensory neurons within those fibres. A nerve impulse is generated and travels from the sensory nerve in the muscle to the spinal cord. The sensory neuron stimulates a motor neuron within the spinal cprd. The motor neuron sends a nerve impulse back to the muscle causing it to contract which causes the leg to kick
2 types of skin receptors
Free neuron endings and encapsulated neuron endings
Free neuron endings
Upon stimulation, can produce sensations of pain, touch, hot and cold
4 types of encapsulated neuron endings:
- Meissner’s corpuscles: responsive to light touch and low frequency vibration
- Pacinian corpuscles: Responsive to pressure changes and high frequency vibration
- End bulb krause: Responsive to light pressure
- Ruffini’s corpuscles: Responsive to pressure, heat, and stretch
In the nervous system lab, what was the point of performing physiological tests for modality and recording results
To get the basic understanding of how our bodies respond to touch, temperature, pain in our nervous system
In the nervous system lab, what does the shortest distance at which a subject can distinguish two points tell us about the number of sense receptors found in each area
It tells us the density of sense receptors and the size of neural receptors. The shorter the distance, the more sensory receptors in that region, and the more accurate my sensory perception was
In the nervous system lab, which location had the greatest density of nerve fibers and what is the significance
Fingertips had the greatest density of nerve fibers considering that it was the region with the shortest distance of the two point test. This is significant as it is most sensitive to touch. Other parts of the body with a high abundance of sensory receptors include tongue and lips
3 layers of the eye:
- Fibrous tunic
- Vascular tunic
- Neural tunic
Fibrous tunic
Composed of dense vascular connective tissue with 2 regions; sclera and cornea
Vascular tunic
Pigmented layer in the middle of the eye with 3 regions; choroid, ciliary body, iris
Neural tunic
Innermost layer of eye consisting of retina with photoreceptors (rods and cones)
Sclera
White layer that covers posterior portion of eye
Cornea
Transparent layer that covers anterior tip of eye to allow light through
Choroid
Highly vascularized and provides blood supply to eye
Ciliary body
Muscular structure where the lens is attached via suspensory ligaments and produces aqueous humor
Iris
Pigmented layer
Pupil
Round opening through which light passes
Retina
Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) located all over except for where the optic nerve leaves the eye ball (optic disc/blind spot)
Macula lutea
Lateral to optic disc with an area of high cone density and in its center is the fovea that contains only cones and area of highest visuals
Where does the retina terminate
Retina does not cover entire inner surface of eye. It terminates anteriorly at ora serrata
2 cavities of the lens
Anterior cavity that contains a watery substance called aqueous humor that nourishes lens and cornea while maintaining intraocular pressure, whereas posterior segment contains viscous vitreous humor whose role is for intraocular pressure
2 chambers of aqueous humor
Anterior chamber located between iris and cornea, and posterior chamber located between lens and iris
What fluid fills the anterior cavity
Aqueous humour
What fluid fills the posterior cavity
Vitreous humour
Based on what you know about the retina and the posterior cavity, how can the retina become detached during trauma
When vitreous humor gets behind the retina
Why is the optic disc called the blind spot?
Lacks photoreceptors (rods/cones) in this region of the eye. Photoreceptors are very important because they convert light signals into electrical signals that travel to the brain to enable us to interpret visual information
What is the fovea
Small depression found in the middle of macula lutea. Within the fovea, the retina only contains cones resulting in least amount of incoming light so it has the highest visuals
Choroid function
Nourishes retina and absorbs light rays
What cranial nerves are responsible for transmission of images from the retina
Optic nerves
Why is the vascular tunic layer pigmented
To prevent light from bouncing around and the melanin absorbs light to prevent it from bouncing around the eye and potentially triggering photoreceptors multiple times
How is the ciliary body used to focus eyesight
It alters shape of the lens by contraction or relaxation of ciliary muscles and the shape ultimately affects how light is directed to retina
What attach ciliary body to lens
Suspensory ligaments
What happens when your eyes are focused on something in front of your nose
Ciliary muscle contracts, lens is more convex, and suspensory ligaments loosen
What happens when your eyes are focused on something across the room
Ciliary muscles relaxes, lens is more flat, and suspensory ligaments are taut
What happens to the size of a pupil when it is exposed to light
Constrict
Significance of pupillary reflex for low light level
Allows eye to adjust the amount of light reaching retina and protects photoreceptors from bright lights
How do you know which eye is dominant
By doing the triangle test (if the object stays center when one eye is closed, then it is dominant)
When one eye was closed, was it harder to insert a pencil?
Yes, as each eye views objects from a slightly different perspective
Outer ear
esponsible for sound collection via pinna and transmits sound to auditory canal and tympanic membrane
Middle ear
Consists of 3 small bones and the eustachian tube; malleus, incus, stapes and takes vibration from tympanic membrane and transmits it to oval window of inner ear
Inner ear
Responsible for hearing and balance consisting of oval window, round window, semicircular canals
Eustachian tube
Regulates pressure differences between middle and outer ear
Which structure is responsible for static equilibrium
Vestibule
How is the tympanic membrane able to transmit sound
The tympanic membrane transmits sound through vibrations. These vibrations are received by the ossicles
Pathway that sound vibration goes through the ossicles
Vibrations come from tympanic membrane, then malleus, then incus, then stapes. Stapes connects to cochlea via oval window
Cochlea function
It is a coiled tube containing fluids, channels, and membranes that transmits sound vibrations to the organ of corti
Symptom of potentially damaged semicircular canals
The function of semicircular canals is to monitor head movement and regulate dynamic equilibrium. Damage to these structures could affect hearing and losing the sense of balance
How does the organ of corti function to produce nerve impulse
Converts mechanical vibrations from sound waves into electrical signals through the stimulation of hair cells which triggers the auditory nerve to send signals to brain
What cranial nerve is responsible for relaying sound information and what else is it responsible for
Vestibulocochlear (sensory) + also responsible in balance
Conduction deafness
An inability to hear resulting from damage in the structures that transmit sound to to structures of the middle or inner ea
Neural Deafness
Occurs when there is either significant damage to the cochlear branch of nerve VIII or damage to the hair cells inside the cochlea
What frequency range do humans hear best
Frequency range of 500 to 5,000 hertz
What frequency range does human speech range
Frequency range of 100-3,000 hertz
Actual size calculation
Field of view (FOV)/# cells or structures that fit across
Drawing magnification calculation
Drawing size (in um)/actual size
Layers of frog intestine
- Mucosa (Epithelial tissue)
- Submucosa (Connective tissue)
- Muscularis (Smooth muscle)
Epithelial tissue in frog intestine
Simple columnar epithelial and found lining entire alimentary canal
Connective tissue in frog intestine
Areolar connective tissue present in mucosa and submucosa layers of alimentary canal
Smooth muscle functions in frog intestine
Move materials through intestine by action of longitudinal and circular fibers
Field of View
5000um, 2000um, 500um
