L8: Knowledge and Problem Solving

Question 1

Define a concept

Answer 1

a mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions

Question 2

Define conceptual knowledge

Answer 2

enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties

Question 3

What is categorization?

Answer 3

The process by which things are placed into groups called categories; Categories are all possible examples of a particular concept

Question 4

Why are categories useful?

Answer 4

Help to understand individual cases not previously encountered.
Provide a wealth of general information about an item.
Allow us to identify the special characteristics of a particular item.

Question 5

What is the a prototype?

Answer 5

An average representation of the “typical” member of a category.

Question 6

What is the difference between high prototypicality and low prototypicality?

Answer 6

High: A category member closely resembles the category prototype.
Low: A category member does not closely resemble the category prototype.

Question 7

What is the typicality effect?

Answer 7

Prototypical objects are:
- processed preferentially
- processed more rapidly
- named more rapidly
- more affected by priming.

Question 8

What is the exemplar approach?

Answer 8

A concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype). Examples are actual category members (not abstract averages).

Question 9

How is the exemplar approach similar/dissimilar from the prototype view?

Answer 9

Similar: Representing a category is not defining it.
Different: Representation is not abstract.

Question 10

How do we know whether to choose prototypes or exemplars?

Answer 10

We probably use both (simultaneously and alternating).
Exemplars may work best for small categories.
Prototypes may work best for larger categories.

Question 11

Pros to exemplar approach

Answer 11

• Explains typicality effect
• Easily takes into account atypical cases
• Easily deals with variable categories.

Question 12

Pros to prototype approach

Answer 12

• Fast and efficient
• Facilitates categorization
• Easily deals with variable categories.

Question 13

What is meant by the hierarchical organization of categories?

Answer 13

Basic level (green) is “psychologically privileged.”
Going above basic level → large loss of information (furniture vs table).
Going below basic level → little gain of information (surgery theater preparation table is still a table).

Question 14

What are semantic networks?

Answer 14

Concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind (Collins and Quillian, 1969)

Question 15

What is the cognitive economy?

Answer 15

Shared properties are only stored at higher-level nodes;
Exceptions are stored at lower nodes.

Question 16

What is semantic dementia?

Answer 16

Progressive neurological disorder in which people lose specific knowledge first and loss of memory follows the hierarchy from specific to general
Gradual disintegration of concepts & categories
Follows opposite direction as in which children acquire knowledge.

Question 17

Explain cortical atrophy in semantic dementia

Answer 17

Selectively affects temporal lobes
Leads to progressive loss of
- word memory (mental lexicon)
- Semantic categories (knowledge/recognition

Question 18

Explain spreading activation

Answer 18

Activation is the arousal level of a node.
When a node is activated, activity spreads out along all connected links.
Concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory.

Question 19

What is a criticism of the Collins & Quillian Model?

Answer 19

The model cannot explain typicality effects.
Some sentence - verification studies have produced results that are problematic for the mode.

Question 20

What is the connectionist approach?

Answer 20

It’s a solution that uses parallel distributed processing.
Knowledge is represented in the distributed activity of many units.
Knowledge can be activated by external stimuli AND signals from other units in the knowledge system
Weights determine at each connection how strongly an incoming signal will activate next unit.

Question 21

What is a connectionist network?

Answer 21

Concept is not represented by a node but by the pattern of activity in the network.
Activation of an item unit (“canary”) and a relation unit (can) causes activity to travel through the network that eventually results in activation of the property units grow, move, fly, and sing, associated with “canary can.”
Shading indicates the activity of the units, with darker shading indicating more activity (weights).

Question 22

What are the advantages of the connectionist approach?

Answer 22

• Similar to human learning process: Can explain how learning occurs (how humans build conceptual networks in our minds)
• Training system to recognize properties of one concept provides information about related concepts (semantic networks, categorization)
• Can explain differences in typicality similarly to prototype models. Explains generalization of learning
• Can explain changing knowledge structure over time.

Question 23

What is the embodied approach?

Answer 23

Learning & conceptualization is based on experience
Knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object.

Question 24

What do mirror neurons do?

Answer 24

Fire when we do a task, or we observe another doing that same task.

Question 25

What is semantic somatotopy?

Answer 25

Correspondence between words related to specific body parts and the location of brain activation.

Question 26

Are problems solved suddenly or progressively?

Answer 26

Depends on the problem (Metcalfe and Wiebe 1987)
Insight problems such as riddles are solved suddenly (red line).
Non-insight problems such as math solutions are solved gradually (blue line).

Question 27

What is fixation?

Answer 27

People’s tendency to focus on one specific characteristic of the problem keeps them from arriving at a solution.

Question 28

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 28

Restricting use of an object to its familiar functions

Question 29

What is mental set?

Answer 29

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experiences with similar problems.
Experience can make you an expert problem solver
Experience can also hinder you in finding solutions

Question 30

What is the information-processing approach?

Answer 30

Newell & Simon’s logic theorist approach: Tower of Hanoi problem

Question 31

Why is the newell-simon approach to problem solving useful?

Answer 31

This approach helps us to specific pathways from the initial (conditions at beginning of problem) to goal state ( solution to problem)

Question 32

What is the mean-end analysis in the newell-simon approach?

Answer 32

A way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states.

Question 33

What is meant by analogical transfer?

Answer 33

The transfer from one problem to another

Question 34

How are analogies used to solve problems?

Answer 34

Analogies aid problem solving but we often struggle to notice analogies.
Often, hints must be given to notice the connection.
- Surface features get in the way (rigid situational thinking).
- Structural features must be used.

Question 35

What is analogical encoding?

Answer 35

The process by which two problems are compared and their similarities are determined.
Comparing cases is believed to promote both recall and transfer.

Question 36

What is analogical paradox?

Answer 36

It can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world setting.

Question 37

How is creativity tested?

Answer 37

Example: Guilford’s alternate uses test
People get objects presented that are associated with a certain use. Task is to come up with as many possible uses in a given time

Question 38

What is the link between creativity and mental illness?

Answer 38

Stereotype that highly creative people are more prone to mental illness (especially bipolar disorder and psychotic conditions such as schizophrenia).
This is not supported by data

Question 39

What is latent inhibition? (LI)

Answer 39

Capacity to screen out stimuli that are considered irrelevant

Question 40

Why is LI important?

Answer 40

LI is critical to filter information protecting us from getting overwhelmed by information. This filter is impaired in some mental illnesses (e.g. psychosis, ADHD) and reduced in highly creative individuals (especially with high IQ).

Question 41

What is savant syndrome?

Answer 41

Savant skills may be present in any person but are normally not accessible to conscious awareness.
In savants the lack of inhibition unlocks savant skills.
Savant syndrome is often linked to damage in anterior temporal lobe