[L7] - Gender Theory Flashcards
Swami and the Gender Paradox in Suicide
- More women attempt, more men succeed.
- There might be a psychosocial reason (as opposed to merely biological gender differences which was previously proposed) for this significant effect – Masculinities!
- “The construction of masculinities is believed to be one of the most important factors influencing the way in which suicide is discussed, contemplated, and enacted by men.”
- “Gender, rather than being mere role containers, is something that is repeatedly and constantly done.”
- “surviving a suicidal act is more likely to be perceived as something inappropriate for men.”
- Men may have internalized the view that it is not masculine to seeK help (see the doctor less frequently, do therapy less frequently, are emotionally open less frequently etc.,)
Genotype vs. Phenotype in the concept of sex
Genotype = Chromosomes XX/XY
Phenotype = Sexual Anatomy
Competing genetic networks can lead to genotype variations which leads to DSD/intersexuality
From the systems biology view, even gene activity is itself environmentally mediated; gene-environment-interaction
Rehmann on whether DSD/intersexuality is a difference or a disorder
Argues from a philosophical Christian perspective.
DSD, 2006 = Disorder of Sexual Development – Intersexuality included as a disorder
- People complained = Renamed as Differences of SD.
- Rehman says that not all DSDs are pathological, but he criticizes the social-constructionist [SC] view that calls them merely differences – because they can also threaten people’s quality of life (does that make them a disorder though? What is health really?) - concludes by saying that some cases are differences, some are disorders.
- He defends the binary model (females and males) with some ambiguous cases (intersex) [somewhat surprising that this view is being taken in the modern day, with all of the evidence that there is to the contrary]
- However a very biological argument on this topic overlooks the fact that people do not engage with each other on a biological level (suggesting the relevance of a gender identity separate from the sexual body)
Present Understandings of Intersexuality
The sexual anatomy f/m does not necessarily correspond to the chromosomal dichotomy XX/XY.
Experts report different prevalences of intersexuality, ranging between 0.02 and 2% — - A 100-fold differences in prevalence estimates! (perhaps because they disagree about the DEFINITION of intersexuality – which makes the prevalence results not comparable – definition used should be made transparent)
Some place sex on a spectrum; there is at least general agreement that not all DSD varieties are pathological.
Does that mean that ‘sex’ is not a natural kind? - ‘hard’ natural vs. ‘soft’ social sciences
The psychodynamics of our understanding of sexual anatomy
Early discussion on anatomy was mostly about male sexuality, or it was men speaking about female sexuality: meaning women often took men’s description as opposed to reflecting on it themselves (Zachary, 2018)
(Van Turnhout, 1995) – The clitoris and the penis have the same internal tissue – the clitoris can be considered a penis grown inward – and a penis considered a clitoris grown outward – similar cells, more similarity in sexual anatomy then we may have believed [similar principles in different forms – commonality in difference]
The psychoanalyst terms (“penis envy”, “castration fears”) – were based on a small sample study: was this perhaps projected on participants?
Is sex a social construct? [given that biological definitions of sex based on the binary model are not totally complete/consistent]
De Beauvoir (Second wave feminist/philosopher) - People aren’t born women, they become them - Being a woman is not a natural factor, girls are manufactured into women [femininity as a social construct - not an essentialist perspective]
Freud said the essence of femininity is passivity - though this may have been meant on a biological or psychological level.
How to distinguish between sex and gender
Perhaps it makes sense to distinguish between sex as that with which people are born, and gender as that which people manifest in everyday life.
Who coined the concept of gender?
John William Money (sexologist)
Introduced gender in a paper where he distinguished six biological factors determining one’s sex and then added “gender role” as a seventh (1950s).
He’s also been criticized for his view that one’s gender role is really changeable (i.e., raising a boy as a girl – but many people responded very poorly to that approach, with suicide etc.,)
Money had children who had disorders/differences of the sexual phenotype – and those with the same sexual body raised in different roles turn out entirely differently – he and his collaborators made the conclusion that gender identity can be changed, and a certain identity can be made to be internalized if efforts start early enough.
He endorsed a mixed hereditary/environmental model.
Define Gender Role
“all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively.”
However, the concept only became widespread when it was used by feminist theorists in the 1970s to distinguish between biological sex and the social construct of gender!
Fausto-Sterling and the Five Sexes
One of the more recent biological researchers who was critical of Money’s perspective – she originally proposed that there were five sexes, and later came to consider it to be more complex than just these five.
She estimates the prevalence of intersexuality of some form at ~2% — And criticized the binary ‘standard model’ and medical practice of assigning sex identity in unclear cases “on the basis of whatever made the best surgical sense”
What is phall-o-metrics?
Use of ‘phall-o-metrics’ to determine medically acceptable clitoris or penis… [selecting whatever made the best surgical sense]
Doctors justified these decisions by saying that the child will suffer if a clear sexual phenotype was not assigned to them, which also made parents feel threatened into making a decision.
The practice was justified with relieving parents and ‘patients’ from psychological distress.
Now the typical approach is to wait until the child can have a perspective.
The effects of Realism in Ernst’s approach to Art, and Doctors’ approach to DSD
Philipp Ernst once painted a garden, but left out a branch that, he found, was disturbing the scene. Later he regretted that his painting looked different from the original garden (because he was a realist). He eventually decided to saw off the branch, instead of changing the painting (son become surrealist)
The doctors had a view of what nature was “supposed to be” and instead of changing their view, they changed the reality. [intersexuality – adopting standard model – corrective surgery]
This relates to the power of definitions, and continued the success of the binary ‘standard model (because “counterarguments” against the model were erased!)
As ambiguous cases were ‘corrected’ medically, we – as people and researchers – were unlikely to discover evidence against it.
This in turn reinforced the binary (and essentialistic) ‘standard model’ of sexuality.
A wrongly conceived essentialistic-realistic model might thus prevent insights about the world!
Is Gender Dysphoria a mental disorder?
Gender Dysphoria is the only DSM chapter with only one disorder in it: [i.e., it was difficult to place; previously called gender identity disorder]
Defined as: A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender, of at least 6 months’ duration, as manifested by at least six of the following (one of which must be Criterion 1):
o A strong desire to be of the other gender or an insistence that one is the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender).
o A strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy.
That second symptom is the only listed symptom for GD that relates to distress/suffering - without this, the other symptoms relate moreso to whether one meets the gender-related expectations of society; and are hence culturally dependent.
Consider how homosexuals were suffering not because they were gay, but because society stigmatized who they were – does that apply here? Should it therefore be similarly removed – or have its definition modified? (already been removed from the ICD)
A summary on views on gender and DSD across time
o Money and colleagues assumed a high level of sexual plasticity: When the sex was assigned in early childhood (BEFORE 18 months), psychological harm would be unlikely.
o Their (or similar) standards for sex assignment surgery were used widely throughout the 20th century.
o Anne Fausto-Sterling and others emphasize cases where adults later rejected their assigned sex.
o Present proposals advocate the avoidance of irreversible action until individuals can choose for themselves.
Butler and Gender Performance
We create and recreate our gender roles by sitting/behaving in a certain way.
She conceives sex, sexuality, and gender as constructed by individual actions or performances (gender performativity).
Even biology and the body are dependent on and shaped by norms - and people should trouble the categories by performing differently (e.g. practice of drag; gender queerness)
