L3C04 The Vine Flashcards
What are the most important species in modern viticulture?
Vitis Vinifera
American vines
Which vine species produces nearly all the grapes used in winemaking?
Vitis Vinifera
Why are American vines rarely used to produce grapes for winemaking?
Their grapes are widely considered to have unattractive flavours
Why are American grapevine species important?
They are resistant to Phylloxera and consequently widely used to produce rootstocks onto which Vinifera vines are grafted
What are the principal differences between grape varieties?
Colour and flavour
What other factors may a grape grower be concerned with when selecting a grape variety?
Budding and ripening times
Resistance to certain diseases
Which two methods may a grower use to preserve the unique qualities of a grape variety?
Cutting
Layering
What is a cutting?
A section of a vine shoot that is planted and then grows as a new plant
Which method of growing new plants is most commonly used in commercial nurseries?
Cutting
Where does layering take place?
In the vineyard
Describe layering
A cane is bent down and a section of it is buried in the ground, the cane tip points upwards out of the ground.
The buried section takes root and when this happens, the linking cane is cut.
Which propagation method is more common? Why?
Cutting
Due to the risk of phylloxera
How can several plants be identified as one variety?
They can all trace their lineage back through a series of cuttings and/or layering to a single plant
What other term can be used for vine variety?
Grape variety
Which word can be used instead of variety?
Cultivar
Why may there still be variations between vines despite their being technically the same variety?
Mutations sometimes occur when the vines grow
Which vines are more likely to be selected for further propagation?
Those which have developed positive/beneficial mutations
What is clonal selection?
Choosing individual vines with beneficial mutations
Each individual vine or group of vines that shows a particular set of unique characteristics is known as a …
Clone
What will a grape grower often specify when ordering new plants from a nursery?
The clone as well as the variety
List two varieties which are the result of more extreme mutations from Pinot Noir?
Pinot Gris and Pinot Blanc
What is cross-fertilisation?
A method of creating a new variety under controlled conditions
Describe cross-fertilisation
Pollen from the male part of the flower of one Vine is transferred to the female part of the flower of another vine and fertilisation occurs. The pollinated flowers develops into a grape with seeds. If the seed is planted and grows, it will be a new variety.
Can a grape’s characteristics be predicted when cross pollination occurs?
No, there is no way of knowing
Why is it costly and time-consuming to create a new variety?
Hundreds of seeds are required
Many seedlings fail in the first year
Producers must wait 2-3 years before the survivors flower and produce fruit
It takes longer to prove the value of the new variety
How is a crossing defined?
A new variety which is produced from two parents of the same species
Give an example of a crossing
Cabernet Sauvignon (Cab Franc x Sauvignon Blanc)
What is a hybrid?
A vine whose parents come from two different vine species
What are hybrids and American vine crossings most commonly used for?
Rootstocks
What is Phylloxera?
An insect that is native to North America which Vinifera is unable to defend itself against
What caused wholesale destruction of European vineyards in the nineteenth century?
Phylloxera when it was accidentally introduced
…has a very complex lifecycle
Phylloxera
What is the most harmful phase of Phylloxera’s lifecycle to a vine? What happens?
When it lives underground and feeds on the roots of the vine. Infection enters through the feeding wound, weakening and eventually killing the vine.
How do American varieties protect themselves against Phylloxera?
They clog the aphid’s mouth with a sticky sap and form a protective layer behind the feeding wounds to prevent secondary infection
Strict quarantine procedures have successfully protected which areas against Phylloxera?
Chile, parts of Argentina and South Australia
What was the only protection against Phylloxera when it first hit Europe?
American species or hybrids
What was the better, but more expensive solution to Phylloxera which was found at the end of the 19th century?
Using American vines/hybrids as rootstocks
Give two other advantages to some rootstocks other than resistance to Phylloxera
Protection against Nematodes
Drought resistance
What is grafting?
It is the technique used to join a rootstock to a Vinifera variety
What is the most popular modern grafting technique?
Bench grafting
What does bench grafting involve?
Short sections of cane from both varieties are joined together by machine and stored in a warm environment to encourage fusion
What is the less common type of grafting?
Head grafting
When is head grafting used?
When a grape grower with an established vineyard decides to switch to different variety between seasons
How is head grafting performed?
The existing vine is cut back to its trunk
A bud or cutting of the new variety is grafted onto the trunk
What are the biggest advantages of head grafting?
The new variety will grow in the forthcoming season (much quicker)
It’s much cheaper than replanting a whole vineyard
What can be used to protect a graft join?
Wax
What are leaves principally responsible for?
Photosynthesis
Summarise photosynthesis
The process by which plants use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen
Describe buds
Form in the join between the leaf and the shoot
They mature inside their casing, so that eventually they contain miniature all the structures that will become the shoot, leaves, flowers and tendrils
Describe tendrils
Tendrils allow the vine to support itself by wrapping around a structure
What are flowers?
The reproductive organs of the vine
It has male and female parts
It’s grouped in bunches called inflorescences
Describe berries
Each flower that is successfully pollinated, becomes a berry, so the inflorescences become bunches of grapes, which have evolved to be attractive to animals (encouraging dispersion)
When do shoots turn woody?
During the winter after they have grown
When do buds burst?
The spring after they have formed
Why is it important to manage one year old wood?
Because vines will normally only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds that developed the year before
When is the vine usually pruned?
Every winter
What is a cane?
One year old wood which is left with 8-20 buds
What is a spur?
One year old wood which is left with 2-3 buds after pruning
What is permanent wood?
Wood that is more than one year old
Where is the permanent wood on the vine usually?
The trunk and the arms
What are the functions of the roots?
To absorb water and nutrients from the soil
To anchor the vine
To store carbohydrates for the winter
South Australia, California
Where can 19th century vines be found that still produce hig
- Climate adaptation - cold, short growing seasons, drought etc.- Resistance to disease - phylloxera, nematodes, mildews, oidium, botrytis- Adaptation to soil conditions (either ungrafted or grafted vines w/rootstocks) - lime, drought, acidity, salt- Economic characteristics - high yield, high quality, ability to mechanise
When selectiing vines, the maincriteria used are :
- transcaucasia
* it had functional hermaphrodite flowers => better yields
Where did the original cultivated vine originate?
- The crossing of V. Vinifera with other Vitis species.- With the spread of phylloxera, hybrid rootstock were created to make the most out of rootstock.- Widely used in eastern USA still due to winter cold resistance.
Vine hybridisation
- In the Europe in the late 19th century
- because the vinifera rootstock was not intolerant for phylloxera
- nurseries developped a large number of hybrid rootstock by crossing V. berlandieri (high calcium tolerance) with V.ripiera and V. rupestris (phylloxera resistant, graft well)
Where did vine hybridisation begin?Why?How?
- In the USA
- early setters found that condidions fo V.F. wereunsuitable
- they were able to interbreed with indigenous species such as V. Riparia, V. labrusca, V. aestivalis
Where did vine hybridisation begin?Why?How?
the downy-mildew resistant hybrids that were created sinds the introduction of this disease, imported from USA in1878, produced good yields, had some mildew resistance and some could be planted unfrafted so the became very popular. e.g. 1950 hybrids occupied 30% of French vineyards.
* => sever overproduction problems of poor quality wine
Why did Europeforbid the productiion of wine from interspec
It is a hybrid
- the 6th most planted grape in Germany
What is special about Regent?
Due to their high winter cold resisitance.
Why are hybrids still used widely in eastern USA?
The crossing of two vinifera varieties to create entirely new varieties.e.g Aramon x Teinturier = Petit Bouschet,Riesling x Madeleine Royal = Müller-Thurgau
What are intraspecific vinifera crosses?
A grape variety that accumulates anthocyanins in the pulp as well as in the skin, which gives a deep red juice on pressing.Used by Louis Bouschet for his crossing “Petit Bouschet” (Aramon x Teinturier)Later further crossed by his son Henri Bouschet for his crossing Alicante Bouschet (Petit Bouschet x Grenache)
What are teinturiers?
- The traditional method for selecting vines in which only the desirable plants are selected from which to take cuttings => done by passing trough the vineyard before harvest- Best done in poor years - can eliminate stock rather than select.
What is mass selection?
- plants originated from a single parent.
- propagated vegetivaly => usually by cuttings
- genatically identical
- first carried out on Silvaner (Froelich in 1876)
- up untill 1950’s only in Germany
- now worldwide
What is clonal Selection, when first carried out?
• Yield
* bud fertility, size of berries, success of berry set
• Sugar & acidity concentrations• Quality of phenolic & aroma compounds• Resistance to disease, cold& drought• Freedom from viral infections (fan-leaf, leaf-roll, fleck, vein necrosis, corky bark, stem pitting)• Ease of grafting• Cost
Clonal selection criteria
- Cuttings are taken from just a few vines from carefully monitored mass-selected vineyards.
- Propagated in controlled conditions, carefully selected.
- Growers plant rather fewer than 10 clones of a variety than poly-clonal populations
How is clonal selection carried out?
- Closely related vines in the same area will allow for easy spread of disease.- Some clones are very specialised and only suitable for certain regions/styles of wine.- Clonal selection has led to in increase in yield, leading to overproduction.- Led to reduction in vine genetic resources.
Disadvantages of clonal selection
- The transfer of genes from one organism to another
* the modification of genes within an organism
What is genetic modification?
- No genetically-modified vines are currently available for usein commercial vineyards.
- Research into improving disease resistance occurs in viticultural research institutes
Explain the use of genetically-modified
- propagation from cuttings is quicker and easier
- allows for grafting on the phylloxera-resistent rootstock
- it is difficult to predict the characteristics of plants grown from seeds (unless controlled pollination techniques have been used)
Why are vines not often planted as seeds?
- the possibility of testing plant material prio to sale.
What are the advantages of vine nurseries?
- Vine canes are buried in the ground then separated from the parent plant once they have established their own root. Now rare
- only used where phyllexera presents no risks
- used in old vineyards in Argentina
- for Bollinger’s “Vieilles Vignes Françaises” (famously and exeptionally in Champagne)
- the best way to propogate vitis berlandieri and rotundifolia (difficult to root from cuttings)
What is layering?
- mass selection (common practise)
* layering (now rare)
What do growers who dont use nurseries tend tot use?
Pieces of parent plant (stems, roots, leaves) that develop into a new plant when placed in right conditions
What are cuttings?
hardwood winter cuttings from canes
What part of vine is used for cuttings?
research
- however more difficult to propagate
- => available all year round.
Softwood cuttings are used for :
- collected in autumn or early winter when they have optimum carbohydrate reserves.- from well-ripened and healthy wood, and have plenty of sap, wood firm and free from dark specks
Hardwood cuttings should be:
Stored at 5ºC prior to grafting.- Heat-treated at 50ºC for 30 minutes, to get rid of pests like phylloxera, nematodes, phytoplasmas.- need temperatures of 15 - 25ºC, and plenty of water in well-drained soil.
How are cuttings treated?
they can be planted
- straight away into a nursery
- into a pot in a greenhouse
What happens with cuttings that are not grafted?
plenty of water
- as leaves grow faster than roots
- mist propagation of propagating frame recommended warmth
- temperatures of 15 - 25°C
- best heat from below loose, well-drained soil in nursery or well aeratedpotting compost
- also high water-holding capacity
- good drainage
- protection from vine weevils
What do cuttings need to grow successfully?
- grafting on American rootstocks to confer resistance to phylloxera or nematodes
- can allow the roots to be better adapted to soil conditions grower can better control the vigour of the plant
- selecting low of high-vigour rootstocks
What are the advantages of grafting the cuttings?
Bench grafting => indoorsfield grafting => outdoors
What is the difference between bench- and field grafting?
- late winter / early spring prior to grafting
- scion and rootstock cuttings are stored in damp sawdust => soaked for 24 - 48 hours
- machine grafting scion quickly dipped in molten paraffin to just below graft union
- prevent graft from drying out grafted cuttings stored in crates containing sand and sawdust
- humidity at 90%
- temp 21 - 29°C for 3 - 5 weeks
- scion and rootstock join together at the graft union with a “callus” of cells Callusing complete?
- remove from crates
- trimmed (remove roots from scion, shoots from rootstock)
- redipped in molten paraffin wax transferred to
- cold store (1 - 4°C°) => vine nursery
- pots at 18 - 21°C for 7 - 10 days => temperate greenhouse => can be planted within 10 months of grafting
Explain bench grafting :
- to change cultivars in established vineyard chip-budding and t-budding : (common)
- bud of new varietal inserted on trunk of old one. cleft-budding (less common)
- sawing trunk of the vine
- splitting it vertically
- inserting canes of the new variety into the cleft require
- scion cuttings must be collected in winter
- cuttings must be stored low temp and high humidity
- almost complete decapitation of old plant
- works well on young vines
- aftercare is very important
What is top or head grafting?
- Only vine species to survive the quarternary ice ages in Europe.- Variable vigour and ripening period.- Adaptable to many soil types.- Not resistant to phylloxera.- Not resistant to nematodes.- 2 subspecies
- V. Vinifera Sativa which is the cultivated vine,
- V. Vinifera Silvestris which is the ancestor of all grape varieties, not hermaphroditic, and almost all eliminated by phylloxera.
Vitis Vinifera
the cultivated vine5 - 10 000 wine producing varietiesselected to be hermaphroditic for good fruit set and relatively large fruit
Explain V. Vinifera Sativa
- the ancestor of all grape varieties
- not hermaphroditic, and almost all eliminated by phylloxera.
- wild European vines
Explain V. Vinifera Silvestris
- Found in N.E USA.- Strong, dark berries, “foxy” aroma.- Not often used as a rootstock parent.- common parent in American hybrids as Concord
Explain vitis labrusca
- Found mainly wild on river banks in central-eastern North America.- used as a rootstock- Rootstocks low in vigour and surface rooting.- Encourage early ripening.- Good phylloxera resistance.- Suffer from iron deficiency (chlorosis) in chalky soils.- Used to control vigour on fertile soils.prefers humid, cool, fertile soils
Explain Vitis riparia
- wild growing on light soils in south-central USA.- Used primarily as rootstock.- Vigorous, with a deep rooting system.- Good resistance to phylloxera.- Susceptible to iron deficiency (chlorosis).- Used for poor soils with limited water.prefers : Deep, poor, healthy soils
explain Vitis rupestris
- Grown on chalky soils in south USA and Mexico.- Vigorous and deep-rooting.- High resistance to chlorosis.- Cuttings have poor rooting ability.- Hybridised with riparia and rupestris.=> Lime-resistant rootstocks that root easily; variable vigour.
explain Vitis berlandieri
4 tot 5 times the cost of an ungrafted cutting
What is the cost of a grafted vine?
Adjusting yield, vigour and ripening times
Why do they us rootstocks in areas that are unaffected by ph
- A louse that was accidentally introduced from the USA in 1863.- Destroyed 2/3rds of European vineyards late 19th century- Vines die of drought in patches that increase in size year on year.- Roots of infected vines covered with insects - oval yellow-brown dots surrounded by lemon-yellow eggs.- Pale green leaf galls on underside on leaves.- Nodosities (whitish or yellowish growths) near the root tip and tuberosities (swellings) on older roots.
Phylloxera Vastatrix
They form hard, corky layers in the roots beneath the feeding wound of the phylloxera,
- making it harder for the louse to feed
- preventing the invasion by other microbes : bacterias and yeast
Why are American vine species resistant to Phylloxera?
- Grafting vitis vinifera on rootstocks of American vine species (discovered by Laliman
- growing on sandy soils
- flooding the vineyard 40 days a year
How can one prevent distruction by phylloxera?
Tiny roundworms.- Common, too small to see with naked eye.- Pratylenchus and Meloidogyne can damage whilst feeding off roots.- Xiphinema Index can transmit viral diseases.
What are nematodes?
- vitis vinifera => lime-tolerant
- vitis riparia, vitis ripestris => suffer from chlorosis in chalky soils
=> hybrids have been developped with vitis berlandieri that are more resistant to lime.=> level of lime must be assessed prior te planting
What rootstocks are chosen for tolerance to lime?
will disrupt water uptake and vine nutrition.
to what problem leads excess acidity
To aluminium toxicity
to what problem leads excess acidity
vitis riparia based rootstocks
What rootstocks are generally more tollerant of damp conditi
vitis rupestris
what rootstocks are more drought tolerant?
riparia rootstock
- => for high-density vineyards
- => for fertilesoils in cool climate
what rootstocks have a high level of vigour?
rupestris rootstock
- => for high-yielding, low density vineyards
- => for poor soils in dry conditions
what rootstocks have a high level of vigour?
- absorb water and nutrients from soil
- anchor the vine
- store carbohydrates for winter
Function of the roots
- reach up toward the sun
- allow the transport of water and other substances between roots,leaves and fruit
- store carbohydrates during dormant period
function of trunk and arms
- they grow out of buds and support leaves.
* Go woody and brown in autumn when they become known as a ‘cane’
what arethe shoots?
- Part of vine which grow leaves, flower bunches and tendrils
- they segment the vine shoots
what are nodes?
Internode
Section of stem between nodes is called
- form at the base of the leaf stalks
* allow the shoot to branch
What are buds?
Prompt buds
Buds that break same year are called
Latent or dormant buds
Buds that break following spring are called
- vine’s organsresponsible for photosynthesis,
* transpire from their pores (evaporate water) creating system which enable plant to suck up water from soil
What are the leaves?
Leaf stalks
What are petioles
Petioles
What part of vine you need to analyses to determine nutrient
- Reproductive stucture of vine
* vine flowersare hermaphroditic
What are the flowers?
- the hermaphroditic reproductive parts of vine
- they are very small
- are grouped in bunches
What are infloresences ?
- They search out trellis wire and wind around them
- enableshoots to stay upright and get maximum sun available
- They are positioned where in the lower half of the shoot, the flower clusters are formed
What are tendrils?
- April/May (Northern Hemisphere) or Sept/Oct (Southern Hemisphere)
- Stimulated by increased temperatures in the spring
- carbohydrates stored over winter in the roots return to the trunk and canes as sap to provide nutrients for budburst
When, how occurs budburst?
Vitis Vinifera
What is the scientific name for the European Grape Vine?
Vitaceae of wood climbing plants.
Vitis Vinifera is part of the …. family
- roots
- trunk and arms
- shoots
- nodes
- buds
- leaves
- petioles
- flowers
- tendrils
- berries
All members of the Vitaceae family have the folllowing struc
bumps
Another word for nodes
The section of stem between nodes.
What is the internode?
- if flower is fertilised => ovary walls swell with water and sugar to form berry pulp.
- they attract birds
- birds disperse the seeds at the centre of the berry
What are the berries of the Viticeae family? Function and or
Bud burstRapid shoot growthFlowering - Fruit SetBerry Growth - VéraisonWood ripeningBerry ripening and harvestWinter dormancy
Discribe the annual growth cycle of the vine
May to August (Northern Hemisphere) - Oct to Jan (Southern Hemisphere)
When is rapid shoot growth
- June/July (Northern Hemisphere
- Nov/Dec Southern Hemisphere
- Pollen must germinate on the stigma (female part of the flower) and grow a long tube to reach te egg in the ovary
- Fine weather is important for pollination and fruit set (little rain and wind- is ideal => too much rain of wind will wash or blow away the pollen
- possible low fruit set and small crop
when and what is Flowering - Fruit set
- occurs simulataneously with flowering
- occurs in dormant buds
- determines the maximum number of bunches per shoot for the following year
What is floral initiation?
- Septo Nov(Northern Hemisphere
- Feb to apr (S.H.) Carbohydrates stored in canes, trunk and roots in order to provide energy for the following spring.
What and when ,Wood ripening
- July to September (Northern Hemisphere
- Dec to Feb (S.H.)
- Skins change color
What and when , berry growth and veraison
- September to November (Northern Hemisphere)
- Feb to Nov (S. Hemisphere)
- Berries accumulate sugars and ripen polyphenols. Fine, dry weather is important in weeks preceding harvest
- fruit is succeptible to diseases (spray witholding periods)
What and when : berry ripening and harvest
- November to January (Northern Hemisphere)
- Feb - May (S.H.)
- Leaves fall,
- shoots lignify (harden and become brown) plant goes dormant.
- in very mild winters => vine fails to go dormant => pruning while sap is still being supplied
when and how :Winter dormancy
Floral initiation
- depends on temperature
- depends on sunlight exposure
- depends on there being sufficient carbohydrates reservers in the wood Bud burst vines are now very sensitive to late spring frosts => destroy the shoots
- secondary buds can grow => less fruitfull Flowering
- ovules must be fertilised
- requires adequate temperatures, can be interupted by rain Fruit set
- poor light levels can lead to poor set (coulure) => loose bunches with few berries
- low temperatures => mix of small, seedles berries and larger berries with seeds in same bunch = millerandage or “hen and chicken” Also important :
- shoot growth (in balance with the yield) berry ripening
- (sufficient high temperature for the physiological process to occur)
- (temp not too high => wine can lack flavours and complexity)
Most important stages in the growth cycle for yield/quality.
No Fruit set
What is coulure?
mix of small, seedles berries and larger berries with seeds in same bunch
What is millerandage?
millerandage ormix of small, seedles berries and larger berries with seeds in same bunch
hen and chicken
1 - 2 à3 y => vine grows trunk and permanent wood
- bunches are removed, shoots in undesirable positions are removed 3y - 7y => first crops are harvested good fruit to leave balance, well exposed fruit => high quality fruit
- because trunk and arms are still quite thin
- because over-wintering reserves are relatively low 7y - 20y => vine is at ist most vigourous, potenential yealds are at their highest
- trunk and arms continues to thicken
- plenty carbohydratereserves
- excesive root system
- canopy needs to be managed to avoid excessive shading and excessive competition for photosynthates
- quality is commonly a little lower than crops at the beginning 20 y => vine is weakened by years of winter and summer pruning, roots are weakend by soil compaction, drought, pests and diseases fruit/leaf balance can restore to what is was in the beginning but yealds van also decline.
- some premium site ones can choose “vieilles vignes”, others can be replaced.
Describe the cycle of the vine
