D1C04 Approaches to Grape Growing

Question 1

What are the factors typically considered in different contemporary viticultural approaches?

Answer 1

overall approach including world view and ethical issues desired level of production intended wine quality return on investment cost availability of labour environmental impact

Question 2

Name the 5 contemporary viticultural approaches.

Answer 2

Conventional Sustainable Organic Biodynamical Precision

Question 3

In the second half of the twentieth century, viticulture underwent a significant change. Describe this conventional viticulture.

Answer 3

In effect it became intensive fruit farming. The aims included raising production levels and reducing labour requirements. This was achieved by mechanisation, chemical inputs, irrigation and clonal selection. Viticulture became a monoculture. Vineyards were kept weed free by ploughing between the rows and spraying with herbicides. The use of agrochemicals in the vineyard to control pests and diseases significantly increased. There was also an increased use of mineral fertilisers.

Question 4

What are the advantages of monocultures grapegrowing?

Answer 4

ability to mechanise the work in the vineyard reduction of competition from other plants ability to tend to the specific needs of the grape variety planted (irrigation, nutrition level, treatments against hazards, pests and diseases) and to increase yields while reducing costs.

Question 5

What are the disadvantages of monocultures grapegrowing?

Answer 5

any plants in a monoculture are much more prone to diseases (e.g. the common fungal diseases) and pests and therefore need more treatments or protection nutrients can be depleted as there is no natural ecosystem to replenish nutrients, requiring more applications of fertilisers residual chemicals can find their way into ground water or the air, creating environmental damage.

Question 6

By the late twentieth century there was an increasing realisation that viticulture should take a different approach. Describe this rationale.

Answer 6

The realisation was that spraying pesticides on a regular basis and routine use of mineral fertilisers were harmful to soil quality, expensive, detrimental to the environment and potentially hazardous for vineyard workers and even the consumer. Intensive fruit farming methods had become an increasing worry to many grape growers, consumers and legislators. In many major vineyard regions there are increasing efforts to reduce the quantity of chemicals used.

Question 7

What are the 3 themes of sustainable viticulture?

Answer 7

economic, social environmental sustainability.

Question 8

Describe the aims and approach of sustainable viticulture.

Answer 8

Sustainable viticulture aims to promote natural ecosystems in the vineyards, maintain biodiversity, manage waste, minimise applications of chemicals and energy use, and reduce impact of viticulture on the wider environment. Grape growers are encouraged to develop an in-depth understanding of the lifecycles of the vine and of vineyard pests and to monitor weather forecasts so that they can predict and prevent a pest or disease outbreak before it occurs. Rather than simply following a regimented calendar of spraying, this enables them to time the applications so that they have the greatest impact. As a result, fewer applications are needed.

Question 9

What is IPM and how is it also called?

Answer 9

Integrated pest management, also known as lutte raisonée

Question 10

What are the 4 elements of IPM?

Answer 10

IPM builds on some of the insights of organic viticulture, but it is prepared to use chemical interventions when necessary. It includes setting thresholds for action (e.g. if pest populations reach a certain level), identifying and monitoring pests, setting up preventative measures, and evaluating and implementing control options (if threshold levels are exceeded and preventative measures have not been effective).

Question 11

Explain how IPM is practically implemented by grape growers?

Answer 11

The grape grower regularly monitors the scale of potential problems and only intervenes before they reach an economic threshold (i.e. when the level of damage will exceed the cost of intervention). They seek to anticipate problems, to boost the vine’s own defence mechanisms and to act at the most effective time. Acting in this way helps to limit serious damage to crops, reduce the amount of chemicals used, save on costs and prevent plants building up resistance to those chemicals.

Question 12

Many countries and regions have guidelines and standards for sustainable viticulture. Describe the general approach behind these standards.

Answer 12

Because of the differing circumstances (e.g. dry versus wet climates), these vary from place to place. They are more about setting in place a way of working (identifying key challenges and hazards, record keeping, ways of calculating thresholds) than absolute standards.

Question 13

Give 3 examples of sustainable grape growing guidelines.

Answer 13

Examples include: LODI RULES (for Lodi, California), Sustainable Winegrowing NZ Sustainable Winegrowing South Africa.

Question 14

What are the advantages of sustainable viticulture?

Answer 14

A more thoughtful approach to grape growing, with attention to the economic, social and environmental impact of viticulture. The deployment of a scientific understanding of the threats to successful grape growing (pests and diseases) to minimise the number of interventions needed. A reduction in the spraying of synthetic and traditional treatments. The consequent cost saving that has incentivised grape growers to work in a more sustainable way.

Question 15

What are the disadvantages of sustainable viticulture?

Answer 15

The term is not protected and therefore can be used to promote wine without a clear set of standards. The danger that nationwide standards for sustainability can be set too low. New Zealand’s high rate of uptake for its scheme – virtually all commercial grape growers – has both been praised for reducing the amount of pesticides used but criticised for setting too low a bar for sustainable certification.

Question 16

What is organic viticulture?

Answer 16

Organic viticulture seeks to improve the soil of the vineyard and the range of microbes and animals, such as earthworms, within it and thereby increase the health and disease-resistance of the vine. It rejects the use of man-made (also known as synthetic) fertilisers, fungicides, herbicides and pesticides.

Question 17

What are 4 key features of organic viticulture?

Answer 17

The application of compost, which breaks down in the soil providing a slow release of nutrients for vines, and improves the structure and increases the biomass in the soil (the total quantity or weight of organisms in a given area or volume). Cover crops are also often used to prevent erosion of the soil and to contribute to the improvement of the life of the soil. This can be through ploughing them in (‘green manure’) or by improving biodiversity. Natural fertilisers may also be used (animal dung, natural calcium carbonate, etc.). The idea is to restore the natural balance of the vineyard. The monoculture of vineyards can be reduced by growing cover crops, planting hedges and establishing ‘islands’ of biodiversity.

Question 18

What are advantages of organic viticulture?

Answer 18

making the health and disease-resistance of the vine and the heath of the soil central aims of the grape grower the reduction in the number of chemical treatments in the vineyard and the elimination of spraying synthetic chemicals a saving on the cost of synthetic chemicals.

Question 19

What are disadvantages of organic viticulture?

Answer 19

a possible small reduction in yield generally possibility of significant reductions in yield in difficult years (e.g. long periods of rainfall or high humidity) increased reliance on copper sprays, which may in turn lead to the build-up of heavy metal in the soils the cost and time expended on certification where this is sought.

Question 20

How do organic grape growers combat mildews?

Answer 20

Organic grape growers use traditional remedies such as sulfur and copper sulfate to combat mildews, and monitor the weather closely to determine when spraying against mildew is really necessary.

Question 21

What is the drawback in how organic grape growers combat mildews?

Answer 21

Build-up of the heavy metal, copper, in the soil where frequent sprays are necessary. This has led some to conclude that careful use of longer-lasting synthetic chemical sprays are a better option for the environment. Reduced need to use tractors in the vineyard is also a bonus for those using synthetic chemicals.

Question 22

How do organic grape growers defend against pests, such as grey rot?

Answer 22

Use of natural predators and ecosystem mechanisms. ‘Sexual confusion’ techniques are also commonly used. For example, to defend against grey rot, the bacterium Bacillus subtilis can be introduced, which competes with Botrytis cinerea for space on the grape.

Question 23

Explain sexual confusion techniques.

Answer 23

They involve the use of pheromone tags or capsules to disrupt the mating patterns of insects such as moths and mealy bugs, and in this way, limit their populations.

Question 24

There are many organic certification bodies throughout the world. What is universal between these certification standards?

Answer 24

All certification bodies should meet the standards set by IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements). A universal requirement, however, is that the vineyard must undergo a period of conversion working to organic standards before it can be certified.

Question 25

There are many organic certification bodies throughout the world. What is the consequence of having many different certification bodies?

Answer 25

Although many of these organisations operate on similar principles, the exact standards each one sets may be slightly different. Therefore, and perhaps confusingly, some wines made from organically-farmed grapes may have been subject to stricter rules than others.

Question 26

Does certification adds an extra cost to the production of wine? And explain.

Answer 26

Evaluating the cost/benefits of organic viticulture is at a very early stage. In some studies, it has been found that organic viticulture leads to slightly lower yields than conventional viticulture. Others have found that the additional cost comes from the need for additional labour. However, any additional costs of organic viticulture are likely to vary around the world (in cool, wet climates it is more difficult to manage without chemical sprays, in some countries labour costs will be higher than others).

Question 27

How are organically cultivated vineyards situated around the world?

Answer 27

85% of organic viticulture in the world as a whole situated in Europe; accounting for 10% of total vineyard area. 6% in New Zealand, 4% in USA, <2% in Chile and Argentina.

Question 28

What is the fastest growing country into organic viticulture?

Answer 28

The fastest growth is in Spain, especially in Castilla-La Mancha with its dry, hot climate that makes for easier conversion.

Question 29

What are the six largest markets in the world for organic wine?

Answer 29

France Germany USA Italy UK Austria. In Europe, France and Germany are growing fastest.

Question 30

What are the elements behind biodynamic viticulture?

Answer 30

Focuses holistically, to include organic practices but also incorporates philosophy and cosmology. The vineyard soil is seen as part of a connected system with the planet Earth, the air and other planets. Practitioners adapt their grape growing practices to coincide with the cycles of the planets, moon and stars.

Question 31

On whoms work is biodynamic viticulture based?

Answer 31

Biodynamic viticulture is based on the work of Rudolf Steiner and Maria Thun.

Question 32

Define ‘preparations’ as used in biodynamic viticulture?

Answer 32

Homeopathic remedies used to fertilise the soil, treat diseases and ward off pests.

Question 33

What is preparation 500?

Answer 33

Horn manure This is made by stuffing cow manure into a cow’s horn and burying the horn in the soil throughout the winter. It is then dug up and the contents are dynamised. This preparation is then sprayed onto the soil as a homeopathic compost. The manure is believed to catalyse humus formation.

Question 34

What is ‘dynamisation’ as practiced in Biodynamic viticulture?

Answer 34

This is the action of stirring the contents of the horn into water (creating a vortex and then reversing it) so that the water memorises the power of the preparation, which can then be passed on to the vineyard

Question 35

What is preparation 501?

Answer 35

Horn silica This is made by filling a cow’s horn with ground quartz (silica) and burying it for six months. It is also then dug up, dynamised and sprayed onto the soil. The silica is thought to encourage plant growth.

Question 36

What are preparations 502-507?

Answer 36

Compost starters Biodynamic grape growers believe that biodynamic compost has to be first ‘activated’ by a series of starters added in tiny quantities (yarrow, chamomile, nettle, oak bark, dandelion or valerian prepared in various ways; for example, the yarrow in a deer’s bladder). These are known as preparations 502–507 and they assist with the decomposition of the compost.

Question 37

Do biodynamic growers use traditional chemicals?

Answer 37

Yes, like organic grape growers, biodynamic grape growers use traditional chemicals to spray against disease, including sulfur and copper sprays.

Question 38

Why do some biodynamic growers practice ‘ashing’?

Answer 38

‘Ashing’, spreading the ashes of burnt weed seeds or harmful animals (e.g. rats or sparrows) on the vineyards is done to ward off these hazards.

Question 39

What is the most common certification body for biodynamic grape growers?

Answer 39

Demeter, which sets international standards for farming and animal husbandry. It has member organisations in many countries.

Question 40

What is the uniform standard for biodynamic vilitculture?

Answer 40

There is none. The standards for biodynamic viticulture include organic certification of vineyards as a baseline, but then goes on to specify the principles that should be followed. Each national association interprets these in the light of local circumstances.

Question 41

Does biodynamic grape growing adds an extra cost to the production of wine? And explain.

Answer 41

The additional costs of biodynamic grape growing are estimated to be little more than organic growing, generally due to the need for additional labour to tend the vineyard.

Question 42

Which segment of grape growers are applying biodynamic viticulture?

Answer 42

Biodynamic grape growing has mainly been taken up by smaller scale grape growers and estates, including some of the most prestigious domaines in Burgundy (e.g. Domaine de la Romanée-Conti). It has been particularly popular in the Loire Valley, and has advocates around the world.

Question 43

What are the advantages and disadvantages of biodynamic grape growing?

Answer 43

The advantages and disadvantages of biodynamic grape growing include those of organic grape growing. There has been limited research comparing organic and biodynamic grape growing (testing, for example, the quality of the soil or the composition of wine made from the grapes), which have so far proved inconclusive.

Question 44

What is precision viticulture?

Answer 44

Both experience and recent research shows big variations in the response of vines, even in the same vineyard or plot. In response to this, precision viticulture, makes use of data collected from the vineyard (soil, vigour, topography, plant growth) to respond to these changes from plot to plot and from row to row. Precision viticulture not only seeks to respond to variations (e.g. in vine vigour) in the vineyard, but, if possible, to reduce them. Also, it can be used to identify different quality zones within the same vineyard.

Question 45

What data is collected in precision viticulture? And how is it collected?

Answer 45

The data collected can be about the composition of soils, the rate of growth of the canopy and many other examples. The data is collected by sensors either on aircraft (‘remote’) or mounted on a tractor or harvester in the field (‘proximal’). Geospatial technology such as global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS) allows the data to be presented visually in the form of maps.

Question 46

What is variable-rate application technology as practices in precision viticulture?

Answer 46

Variable-rate application technology is targeted Interventions in the vineyard based of the data collected. Thus, the grape grower can respond to the significant differences from plot to plot (or smaller) in the vineyard. The idea is for all key interventions, for example, pruning, leaf removal, treatments, irrigation, crop thinning and harvesting, to be carried out precisely with the aim of producing the best quality and yield, reducing environmental impact and, where possible, reducing costs on treatments.

Question 47

Give examples of specific changes made using precision viticulture?

Answer 47

Examples of changes made in the light of the data include changing the rootstock half way along rows of vines as the soil gets richer or increasing levels of leaf-stripping in a high vigour area.

Question 48

Which segment of grape growers are applying biodynamic viticulture? What countries are advocating PV?

Answer 48

As precision viticulture requires considerable upfront investment (sensors, software), it is only an option in large scale viticulture or on high-value, smaller estates. It has been most widely used in California and in Australia, and is most effective where the data collected is used systematically to control treatment application rates or irrigation rates.

Question 49

Is precision viticulture a self-standing approach, practices independent from other approaches?

Answer 49

No, precision viticulture is often used as part of sustainable or organic viticulture.

Question 50

What are the Advantages of precision viticulture?

Answer 50

detailed understanding of variations in the vineyard that affect yield and quality between and within vineyards ability to tailor a wide range of interventions (choice of variety and rootstock, canopy management, treatments, harvest dates) to individual blocks or even rows of vines, with the aim of improving yields and/or quality.

Question 51

What are the Disadvantages of precision viticulture?

Answer 51

initial cost of remote data collection cost of sensors and software and of either consultancy or trained staff to interpret the data and make interventions in the light of it.