L2 - Terminology

Question 1

Define a cyst

Answer 1

cavity, epithelium lining, contain secretion - type epithelium dependent, watery - lining epithelium is serous, mucus - mucus secreting columnar epithelium

Question 2

Define an Abscess

Answer 2

cavity, granulation tissue lining, contain pus (dead or dying neutrophil leukocytes

Question 3

Define a granulation tissue

Answer 3

repair tissue, newly formed blood vessels, myofibroblasts

Question 4

Define Granuloma

Answer 4

chronic inflammation, localised collection of mod macrophages (epithelioid histiocytes), may central area of necrosis, lymphocytes & plasma cells, pathogenesis - Type 4 delayed hypersensitivity, causes - TB & sarcoidosis

Question 5

Define Apoptosis

Answer 5

regulated cell death, loss of specialised surface structures, cell volume reduction, chromatin condensation - chromatin aggregates peripherally under nuclear membrane, form cytoplasmic blebs & apoptotic bodies, phagocytosis of apoptotic bodies - macrophages

Question 6

Define Necrosis

Answer 6

Morphologic changes follow cell death in living tissue, result from progressive degradative action of enzymes on the lethally injured cells, Subtypes (Coagulative necrosis, Liquefactive necrosis, Suppurative necrosis, Caseous necrosis, Fat necrosis, Gangrene)

Question 7

Define the difference between apoptosis and necrosis with histology

Answer 7

Apoptosis: single cells affected within living tissue, tissue structure unaffected
Necrosis: sheets of cells dying together, tissue architecture is disrupted

Question 8

Define the difference between apoptosis and necrosis with cytology

Answer 8

Apoptosis: Cells contract, increased density of cytoplasm & nucleus
Necrosis: Cells swell (oedema), loss of intracellular features

Question 9

Define the difference between apoptosis and necrosis with ultrastructure

Answer 9

Apoptosis: Plasma membrane and mitochondria remain intact
Necrosis: Plasma membrane & internal membrane ruptured, mitochondria swell

Question 10

Define the difference between apoptosis and necrosis with Dye exclusion

Answer 10

Apoptosis: : Dyes excluded
Necrosis: Dyes enter cells freely

Question 11

Define the difference between apoptosis and necrosis with circumferences

Answer 11

Apoptosis: Dyes excluded
Necrosis: Never physiological

Question 12

Define the difference between apoptosis and necrosis with effects on tissue

Answer 12

Apoptosis: No inflammation, rapid removal of dead cell leaving tissue architecture undisturbed
Necrosis: Evokes an acute inflammatory reaction, major disturbance of surrounding tissue

Question 13

Define Hyperplasia

Answer 13

Increased no. cells, negative feedback control, tissue/organs go back to normal when demand is withdrawn

Question 14

Define Neoplasia

Answer 14

increased no. cells, cells continue to grow/multiply, some genetic control on cell proliferation is lost, usually mutation in oncogenes or tumour suppressor genes

Question 15

Define hyperplasia

Answer 15

Organ responds to increase demand by increase no. of cells, cells multiply (labile cells) like epithelial cells of gut

Question 16

Define Hypertrophy

Answer 16

Organ responds to increase in demand by acquiring more organelles in cell cytoplasm, increase size of cells, cells can’t multiply (stable cells) like muscle cells

Question 17

Define Atrophy

Answer 17

organs fully grow → denervation or lack of activity (immobilisation after fracture) → Reduce cell size → Shrink organ size

Question 18

Define Aplasia

Answer 18

Organs never developed, example: fingers & appendix

Question 19

Define metaplasia

Answer 19

Adapt to cell environment, change one adult cell type to another, example: squamous metaplasia in cervix, bronchus, Barrett’s metaplasia of oesophagus

Question 20

Define dysplasia

Answer 20

premalignant change - disorganised growth, changes in cellular levels, variability in size & shape (pleomorphism), increased nuclear cytoplasmic ratio, darkly staining nuclei (hyperchromasia), increased mitotic activity

Question 21

Define In-situ carcinoma

Answer 21

full thickness dysplasia of epithelium, confined to epithelium, don’t invade basement membrane

Question 22

Define invasive carcinoma

Answer 22

full thickness dysplasia of epithelium, neoplastic cells invade basement membrane

Question 23

Define Carcinoma

Answer 23

malignant tumour of epithelial differentiation, type of epithelial effects further division (squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, urothelial carcinoma)

Question 24

Define Sarcoma

Answer 24

malignant tumour of mesenchymal differentiation, type of cells sarcomas further subdivided (Fibrosarcoma, Leiomyosarcoma, Rhabdomyosarcoma, Liposarcoma, Chondrosarcoma, Osteosarcoma etc)

Question 25

Define Hamartoma

Answer 25

developmental malformation, normal tissues present, not laid properly - lumps, examples: birth marks with blood vessels or hair follicles

Question 26

Define Teratoma

Answer 26

tumour, totipotent germ cells, cells differentiate → bone, cartilage, muscle & epithelial cells, not normally present, examples: teratoma in ovary or testis w/ bone or cartilage

Question 27

Define Benign

Answer 27

Small, well defined borders, low mitotic count, well differentiated, localized to site of origin, don’t invade

Question 28

Define Malignant

Answer 28

Larger, irregular borders, high mitotic count, variable differentiation, spread to distant site (metastasis), invade: basement membrane, vascular channels, perineural neural invasion

Question 29

Define Adenoma

Answer 29

benign tumour, formation of glands

Question 30

Define Papilloma

Answer 30

benign tumour, finger-like/papillary structures

Question 31

Define Differentiation

Answer 31

benign, well differentiated malignant tumour sim to normal counterpoint, example: fibroadenoma to normal lobules of breast

Question 32

Define Anaplasia

Answer 32

No resemblance to normal counterpart, malignant tumours have bad prognosis

Question 33

Define Grading

Answer 33

how far the tumour is differentiated

Question 34

Define Staging

Answer 34

how far tumour spread, size of primary tumour, lymph node involvement, distant metastasis, UICC - TNM staging (T - Primary Tumour, N - Lymph Node, M - Distant Metastasis)

Question 35

What are the key differences between acute and chronic inflammation?

Answer 35

Acute: rapid onset, short duration, mainly neutrophils Chronic: slow onset, long duration, lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, tissue destruction and repair

Question 36

What are the cardinal signs of acute inflammation?

Answer 36

Redness (rubor), Heat (calor), Swelling (tumor), Pain (dolor), Loss of function (functio laesa)

Question 37

What are the systemic effects of acute inflammation?

Answer 37

Fever, Malaise, Leukocytosis, Elevated acute-phase proteins (e.g., CRP, fibrinogen)

Question 38

What are the possible outcomes of acute inflammation?

Answer 38

Resolution, Abscess formation, Chronic inflammation, Healing by fibrosis

Question 39

What are the roles of macrophages in chronic inflammation?

Answer 39

Phagocytosis, Antigen presentation, Cytokine secretion (IL-1, TNFα), Stimulate fibroblasts and angiogenesis

Question 40

Define healing by first intention

Answer 40

Healing of a clean surgical wound where edges are closely apposed → minimal scarring, minimal granulation tissue

Question 41

Define healing by second intention

Answer 41

Healing of a large or infected wound → more granulation tissue, wound contraction, larger scar

Question 42

What is meant by ‘organisation’ in pathology?

Answer 42

Replacement of dead tissue by granulation tissue → eventually fibrous scar

Question 43

What are labile, stable, and permanent cells in terms of regenerative capacity?

Answer 43

Labile: continuously divide (e.g., skin, gut epithelium) Stable: normally quiescent, can divide (e.g., liver) Permanent: cannot divide (e.g., neurons, cardiac muscle)

Question 44

What is the function of myofibroblasts in wound healing?

Answer 44

Contract the wound edges and deposit collagen → scar formation

Question 45

What causes caseous necrosis and what is its appearance?

Answer 45

Cause: tuberculosis Appearance: soft, cheese-like, granulomatous inflammation with central necrosis