L11 - Bacterial exploitation of host cytoskeleton and intracellular trafficking Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three principal components of the cytoskeleton?

A

Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.

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2
Q

Which protein is the main constituent of microtubules?

A

Tubulin.

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3
Q

What is the approximate diameter of microtubules?

A

About 25 nm.

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4
Q

What are the approximate diameters of intermediate filaments and microfilaments?

A

Intermediate filaments are ~10 nm and microfilaments (actin) are ~7 nm.

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5
Q

Which Shigella effector mentioned on this slide modulates the cytoskeleton?

A

VirA.

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6
Q

Provide an example of an E. coli effector that modulates host cell processes.

A

EspG (also referenced as orf3).

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7
Q

What types of pathogens are known to produce factors that manipulate the host cell’s cytoskeleton?

A

Bacteria and Viruses

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8
Q

Why is it significant that multiple bacterial species employ these tactics?

A

It highlights the evolutionary advantage of subverting host cell dynamics for invasion and survival.

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9
Q

What are the two principal mechanisms of bacterial invasion?

A

The trigger and zipper mechanisms.

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10
Q

How does the “zipper” mechanism facilitate bacterial entry?

A

By engaging adhesin/receptor interactions that induce localised host cell responses.

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11
Q

What characterises the trigger mechanism of bacterial invasion?

A

The injection of bacterial proteins into host cells that actively induce cytoskeletal rearrangements.

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12
Q

Which pathogens are typically associated with each trigger and zipper mechanism?

A

Zipper is linked to Yersinia and Listeria; trigger is linked to Salmonella and Shigella.

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13
Q

Which cellular structure is central to both the trigger and zipper mechanisms?

A

The actin cytoskeleton.

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14
Q

How do adhesin/receptor interactions contribute to bacterial uptake?

A

They initiate host cell responses that promote the engulfment of bacteria.

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15
Q

What role do translocated bacterial effectors play in invasion?

A

They trigger rearrangements in the actin cytoskeleton that aid in internalisation.

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16
Q

What dynamic cellular structure is induced during Salmonella invasion?

A

Membrane ruffles.

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17
Q

What is the primary cytoskeletal component in membrane ruffles?

A

Actin.

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18
Q

How can membrane ruffling be visualised experimentally?

A

Through the use of GFP-tagged actin in cultured epithelial cells such as MDCK cells.

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19
Q

What is the role of membrane ruffles in the process of bacterial invasion?

A

They remodel the plasma membrane to facilitate bacterial entry.

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20
Q

What role do Rho GTPases play in the cell?

A

They act as molecular switches that regulate actin cytoskeleton dynamics.

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21
Q

What cellular changes occur when constitutively active Rho GTPases are introduced?

A

There is stimulation of stress fibres, lamellipodia, or filopodia depending on the specific GTPase involved

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22
Q

Which actin structure is stimulated by active Rho?

A

Stress fibers.

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23
Q

What does GEF stand for, and what is its role?

A

Guanine nucleotide exchange factor; it activates GTPases by facilitating the exchange of GDP for GTP.

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24
Q

What is the function of a GAP in the regulation of GTPases?

A

A GTPase-activating protein (GAP) accelerates the hydrolysis of GTP, inactivating the GTPase.

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25
Q

How does a GDI influence Rho GTPase activity?

A

It binds to the GTPase and prevents the release of GDP, thereby maintaining the inactive state.

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26
Q

Why is the regulation of the GTP-bound state of Rho GTPases important?

A

It ensures that signalling is precisely controlled and transient.

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27
Q

Name a Salmonella effector that functions as a GEF.

A

SopE (and SopE2).

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28
Q

What role does the Yersinia effector YopE play in modulating Rho GTPases?

A

It acts as a GAP to inactivate Rho GTPases.

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29
Q

How do bacterial proteins that mimic GDP dissociation inhibitors affect host GTPases?

A

They maintain the GTPases in an inactive state by preventing GDP release.

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30
Q

Can you name additional bacterial effectors that modulate Rho GTPases?

A

Burkholderia pseudomallei BopE and Shigella IpgB1/IpgB2

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31
Q

Which two Salmonella effectors are responsible for activating Rac1 and Cdc42?

A

SopE and SopE2.

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32
Q

What are the distinct cellular outcomes of activating Rac1 versus Cdc42?

A

Activation of Rac1 induces lamellipodia (membrane ruffles), while Cdc42 activation leads to the formation of filopodia

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33
Q

Which bacterial species are well known for exploiting host cytoskeletal functions?

A

Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Helicobacter, Listeria, and Neisseria.

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34
Q

How is the activity of SopE regulated following its initial function?

A

It is rapidly removed via ubiquitination and proteolysis, ensuring that the activation of GTPases is transient.

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35
Q

Which enzyme from Clostridium modifies actin by ADP‑ribosylation?

A

The C3 exoenzyme.

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36
Q

How do Clostridium difficile toxins affect actin?

A

They glucosylate actin, leading to its inactivation.

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37
Q

What modification is performed by the E. coli toxin CNF on actin regulators?

A

Deamidation or transglutamination.

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38
Q

What is the effect of Yersinia YopT on actin regulation?

A

It proteolytically inactivates Rho GTPases, thereby affecting actin dynamics.

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39
Q

Which Salmonella effector directly ADP‑ribosylates actin?

A

SpvB

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40
Q

How does Shigella manipulate actin without involving Rho GTPases?

A

Through IpaC, which stabilises actin by recruiting vinculin.

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41
Q

Which Vibrio cholerae effector contributes to actin organisation?

A

MARTX (and VgrG1).

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42
Q

What is the role of E. coli SPATE toxins in actin organisation?

A

They cleave fodrin, thereby indirectly affecting the actin cytoskeleton.

43
Q

What is the main function of the Arp2/3 complex?

A

It nucleates new actin filaments and creates branched actin networks.

44
Q

Which protein family is responsible for activating the Arp2/3 complex?

A

The WASP family, including N‑WASP.

45
Q

How is N‑WASP normally regulated?

A

It remains auto‑inhibited until activated by signals such as active Cdc42 and PtdIns(4,5)P₂.

46
Q

Why is the formation of branched actin networks important?

A

They provide the structural basis for dynamic cellular processes like motility.

47
Q

Which intracellular bacterium is famous for its actin-based motility within host cells?

48
Q

Name another bacterium that utilizes actin for intracellular movement.

49
Q

What advantage does actin-based motility confer on intracellular pathogens?

A

It enables rapid movement within cells and facilitates spread between adjacent cells.

50
Q

Aside from bacteria, which type of pathogen also exploits actin for propulsion?

A

Certain viruses, such as Vaccinia virus.

51
Q

What does live-cell imaging of intracellular bacteria typically reveal?

A

The dynamic movement of pathogens like Listeria within host cells.

52
Q

Which imaging technique is commonly employed to study these intracellular dynamics?

A

Live-cell fluorescence microscopy.

53
Q

By what mechanism does Listeria achieve intracellular motility?

A

It hijacks the host’s actin polymerisation machinery.

54
Q

What distinctive structure is induced on host cell surfaces by EPEC?

A

Actin pedestals.

55
Q

Which host proteins are recruited to form these pedestals?

A

N‑WASp and the Arp2/3 complex.

56
Q

How do actin pedestals assist EPEC during infection?

A

They secure bacterial attachment and can modulate host cell signalling.

57
Q

What do these structures indicate about host–pathogen interactions?

A

They exemplify how pathogens directly reprogramme the host actin machinery.

58
Q

Which two type III secretion systems (T3SS) does Salmonella employ?

A

SPI‑1, which facilitates invasion, and SPI‑2, which is crucial for intracellular survival and systemic spread.

59
Q

What is the primary function of SPI‑1?

A

It mediates the initial entry of Salmonella into host cells.

60
Q

What role does SPI‑2 play in Salmonella infection?

A

It supports the bacterium’s survival within host cells and assists in systemic dissemination.

61
Q

What is the critical function of phosphoinositides in host cells?

A

They delineate intracellular compartments and regulate the recruitment of proteins for vesicle trafficking.

62
Q

How do phosphoinositides influence vesicle fusion and maturation?

A

By controlling the binding of specific proteins that are involved in trafficking pathways.

63
Q

Why is the regulation of phosphoinositides important during infection?

A

Pathogens can manipulate these lipids to modify vacuolar membranes and create niches for survival.

64
Q

Which two bacterial enzymes serve as inositol phosphatases?

A

Salmonella SigD and Shigella IpgD.

65
Q

What substrate do these enzymes target?

A

They cleave PI(4,5)P₂.

66
Q

What is observed when Salmonella lacks SigD during infection?

A

Vacuolar membranes remain enriched in PI(4,5)P₂ and actin.

67
Q

What does the detection of PI(3)P indicate about the vacuole?

A

It suggests that the vacuole is undergoing maturation and engaging in trafficking pathways.

68
Q

What effect do the Salmonella effectors SigD and SopB have on host membranes?

A

It cleaves PI(4,5)P₂, altering the phosphoinositide composition.

69
Q

How does the alteration of PI(4,5)P₂ levels affect the host cell?

A

It disrupts actin dynamics and promotes membrane remodelling.

70
Q

What drives the movement of vesicles along microtubules?

A

Motor proteins such as kinesin and dynein.

71
Q

Which factors regulate vesicle trafficking and fusion?

A

Phosphoinositides, small GTPases (Rab and Arf proteins), and SNARE proteins.

72
Q

How can bacterial proteins exploit the host’s vesicle trafficking machinery?

A

By modifying trafficking pathways to deliver toxins or alter the vacuolar environment.

73
Q

Why is the control of vesicle trafficking critical for pathogens?

A

It creates an intracellular niche that supports replication and evasion of host defences.

74
Q

What cellular process do Rab and Arf GTPases primarily regulate?

A

Vesicle trafficking and membrane remodeling.

75
Q

Which Legionella effector acts as an ArfGEF to modulate Arf1?

76
Q

Which Rab GTPase is modulated by Legionella effectors SidM and LepB?

77
Q

How does Salmonella influence Rab GTPases?

A

It employs the proteolytic cleavage of Rab32 via the effector GtgE.

78
Q

Which pathogen employs a type IV secretion system (T4SS) to modify its intracellular compartment?

A

Legionella pneumophila, utilising the Dot/Icm system.

79
Q

Approximately how many effectors does the Legionella T4SS deliver?

A

Over 100 effectors.

80
Q

Which bacterium uses a type IV secretion system known as the VirB system?

81
Q

How do these secretion systems benefit the pathogen?

A

They remodel the vacuole to interact with endoplasmic reticulum exit sites, thus creating a niche for intracellular survival.

82
Q

How does the exploitation of actin benefit these pathogens?

A

It supports both intracellular mobility and cell-to-cell dissemination.

83
Q

How does actin-based motility contribute to a pathogen’s virulence?

A

It facilitates rapid intracellular spread and helps evade host immune responses.

84
Q

What does the widespread use of actin-based movement suggest about pathogen evolution?

A

It indicates that subverting the host’s cytoskeleton is a highly advantageous strategy for infection.

85
Q

What common strategy is observed among pathogens that utilise the host’s actin cytoskeleton for movement?

A

They all manipulate actin to propel themselves and promote intercellular spread.

86
Q

How do these systems complement each other in the infection process?

A

They enable both the initial invasion and subsequent intracellular persistence of the pathogen.

87
Q

How does the probe function in the context of infection?

A

It binds to PI(3)P, thereby indicating the localisation of this phosphoinositide.

88
Q

What is the composition of this PI(3)P probe?

A

It consists of a fusion protein containing a 2×FYVE domain linked to EGFP.

89
Q

What role do these phosphatases play in bacterial infection?

A

They alter the membrane composition to facilitate infection and vacuolar remodelling.

90
Q

Why is a PI(3)P-specific probe employed in experimental studies?

A

To detect and monitor the recruitment and presence of PI(3)P during infection.

91
Q

What is the overall consequence of this enzymatic activity during infection?

A

It facilitates vacuolar remodelling and supports bacterial intracellular survival.

92
Q

Which factors regulate vesicle trafficking and membrane fusion?

A

Phosphoinositides, small GTPases (including Rab and Arf proteins), and SNARE proteins.

93
Q

What does the active (GTP-bound) state of a Rho GTPase signify?

A

It indicates the protein is signalling and capable of initiating downstream cellular responses.

94
Q

How do bacterial pathogens exploit host cytoskeletal components?

A

They manipulate microfilaments (actin) and microtubules to facilitate invasion and survival within host cells.

95
Q

What are the two main mechanisms bacteria use to enter host cells?

A

Trigger Mechanism: Causes major membrane ruffling and extension (e.g., Salmonella, Shigella). Zipper Mechanism: Involves minimal membrane changes via bacterial adhesion (e.g., Listeria, Yersinia).

96
Q

What is the role of small GTPases in bacterial entry?

A

They regulate actin polymerization and cell shape. Bacteria mimic or inhibit these GTPases (e.g., Salmonella alters GTPase activity to manipulate the host cytoskeleton).

97
Q

How do bacteria manipulate the endocytic pathway to avoid degradation?

A

They alter phosphoinositide metabolism, disrupting membrane trafficking. They use type III or IV secretion systems to inject effector proteins that interfere with host processes.

98
Q

How does Salmonella evade the immune response after entering a host cell?

A

It modifies the complement system and recruits host proteins to maintain a stable intracellular environment.

99
Q

How does Listeria monocytogenes use actin polymerization for survival?

A

It produces ActA protein, which triggers actin polymerization, allowing movement through the cytoplasm and cell-to-cell spread.

100
Q

How do Brucella and Legionella establish intracellular niches?

A

They use type IV secretion systems to resemble the endoplasmic reticulum, preventing detection and degradation.

101
Q

What role does actin polymerization play in bacterial motility?

A

Bacteria like Listeria and Shigella induce actin tails to propel themselves through the cytoplasm, aiding rapid spread.

102
Q

Why is understanding bacterial manipulation of host cytoskeletal dynamics important?

A

It provides insights into bacterial survival strategies, helping researchers develop targeted therapeutics against infections.

103
Q

What host processes do bacterial pathogens exploit for survival?

A

They target receptors, GTPases, and phosphoinositide metabolism to manipulate cytoskeleton dynamics and evade immune detection.