L05 - Learning & Memory

Question 1

Describe classical (Pavlovian) conditioning.

Answer 1

• Learning by stimulus-stimulus association
• Prior to conditioning, unconditional stimulus (UCS) will lead to unconditioned response (UCR)
• If UCS combined with neutral stimulus (NS), it will lead to same UCR
• Continuous repetition -> NS will become a conditioned stimulus (CS) leading to same response = conditioned response (CR)

Question 2

Describe operant (instrumental) conditioning.

Answer 2

• Learning by response-outcome association
• When a particular behaviour occurs, the behaviour is either reinforced (to increase / maintain the behaviour) or punished (to decrease the behaviour)
• If the reinforcement / punishment is positive, it involves adding a pleasant / aversive stimulus
• If the reinforcement / punishment is negative, it involves removing an aversive / pleasant stimulus

Question 3

Describe social (observational) learning.

Answer 3

• Learning by watching other people’s behaviour and its consequences
• Learning occurs by imitation

Question 4

Which neurones are associated with observational learning, and how do they work?

Answer 4

• Mirror neurones
• These neurones are the same neurones that fire when a behaviour is observed as when an individual performs the behaviour
• They are mostly in the frontal and parietal cortices

Question 5

How are learning and memory linked?

Answer 5

• The ability to learn depends on the ability to remember

- The ability to remember depends on prior learning

Question 6

What are the three stages of memory?

Answer 6

1 - Encoding

2 - Storage

3 - Retrieval

Question 7

What are the characteristics of short-term memory?

Answer 7

1 - Limited capacity (7±2 items)

2 - Short duration

3 - Maintenance occurs via rehearsal

4 - Forgetting occurs via displacement (a consequence of limited capacity)

Question 8

What are the characteristics of long-term memory?

Answer 8

1 - Unlimited capacity

2 - Variable duration

3 - Forgetting occurs via interference and / or decay (‘use it or lose it’)

4 - Cues and context aid retrieval of information stored in the long-term memory

Question 9

What are the 2 components of long-term memory?

Answer 9

1 - Declarative memory (facts, data, events, etc.)

2 - Procedural memory (how to do things)

Question 10

What are the 2 components of declarative memory?

Answer 10

1 - Episodic memory (personal experiences)

2 - Semantic memory (general factual information)

Question 11

What proportion of information do patients tend to remember from a consultation?

Answer 11

∼50%

Question 12

List 4 causes of memory impairment.

Answer 12

1 - Diffuse brain diseases (dementias)

2 - Focal brain diseases (amnesias)

3 - Physiological disturbances (delirium)

4 - Psychiatric illnesses (schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, dissociative disorders)

Question 13

What are the two types of amnesia and what are the differences between them?

Answer 13

• Retrograde amnesia: can’t remember events prior to brain damage
• Anterograde amnesia: can’t remember events that occur after brain damage

Question 14

What are the symptoms of anterograde amnesia?

Answer 14

• Difficulty learning new info
• May be disorientated & confused
• Personality, intelligence & judgement may be unaffected
• Will generally have good memory for the past up to the time of brain injury
• May have trouble holding job
• Stress, anxiety, worthlessness, relationship issues, effects on family, frustration