Knowing and Using Knowledge Flashcards
Who is Soloman Shereshenvsy and why is he unique?
A mnemonist can encode and retrieve information quickly and can never forget anything/gave perfect retellings. One struggle is having difficulty tying/using the information together.
General knowledge that we have is a ________.
Concept
What did Wittgenstein (1953) propose?
Simple terms we use every day do not have definitions because not all concepts are the same since there are exceptions. (e.g) A dog with no tail
Members of a category resemble one another, with some number of features being shared by any subset of a category member though the features may not be shared with all members.
Family Resemblance
(e.g.) Three-legged dog, it still barks + has a tail, also siblings
A single best example or average. Identifying the center of the category.
Ideal
Objects, situations, or events differ in ______ from the prototype/how close to it is.
Typicality
Objects, situations, or events closer to the prototype are high in typicality and are better members than those farther from the prototype.
Graded Membership
Smith et al. (1974)
Sentence verification. True or false sentences and reaction time were faster if the item was close to the prototype.
Mervis et al. (1976)
Production task. Beginning list was high in typicality and closer to the prototype
Mervis et al. (1976)
Production task. Beginning list was high in typicality and closer to the prototype
A level of categorization that is not too specific or too general. This is the same level as where prototypes are located and where children first learn. (e.g.) Spoon
Basic Level
What was the outcome of Tanka and Taylor (1991)?
Those who were experts were able to give specific detailed responses to their subjects while novice people gave basic responses, such as, “this is a bird”.
What is an example of an object being at the superordinate level?
Cutlery
What is an example of an object being at the subordinate level?
Soup Spoon
What did Halberstadt & Rhodes (2003) say about typicality and attractiveness?
Our prototypes are most attractive when we think about them because it is high in typicality.
Specific remembered instances; an example from past experiences. (e.g.) a chair that a grandparent used to sit in.
Exemplars
Keli (1986)
Differences in typicality and categorization
What happens if your Hubs are damaged?
Your general knowledge about a concept diminishes.
Murphy & Medin (1985)
Asked if a lawnmower and plum are in the same category
Category knowledge guides your _______ about new cases and _____ your inferences.
Thinking; Guides
Typical exemplars promote stronger inference about their broader category than atypical exemplars.
Typicality Effect
The better the example fits the category the more likely were are to use it to explain _________.
Atypical Situations
If the example does not fit then what?
It is not used or remembered.
When we have something unusual like an infectious disease, you’re more likely to think of a sparrow spreading the disease than a duck because it is not typical.
Rips (1975)
We will choose a common/well-known answer like “robin” because it is typical.
Osherson et al. (1990)
What makes stereotypes different from prototypes?
Strong emotional feeling associated with a category
Students at your university have a lot of diversity than other universities, regardless if they are the same.
Rithegeber (1977)
We assume individuals in our group have a lot of diversity, but not those in the out-group because they are all the “same”.
Homogeneity Effect
The lateral occipital cortex
Living things and perceptual properties, such as, how it looks.
The medial fusiform gyrus
Nonliving things and focuses on the function of it.
A condition that involves difficulty naming things, but has no issue with speech. This condition only applies to living things and is based on the area where the brain damage occurred.
Anomia
Concepts are essentially grounded in perception and action.
Embodied Concepts
Hub
A brain location that connects and integrates information from many other areas of the brain.
Spokes
More specific elements of the concept
Weights between connections signify strength
Connectionist Network Model (aka PDP)
Longer to transverse the hierarchy.
Collins & Quillian (1969)
Reproductive Memory
Verbatim
Reconstructive Memory
Opinions and reformatted
What 3 trends did Bartlett (1932) find?
Recalled the main plot, minor details were not remembered, and successive recall was normalized/rationalize.
A mental framework of the body of knowledge about a topic is?
Schema
A phenomenon where listeners/readers fail to recognize an inaccuracy or inconsistency because it fits their schema.
Semantic Illusion
What did Sulin & Dooling (1974) suggest?
If you consider yourself an expert in an area you will add additional information that was never there to fit your schema.
Where does the soap-opera effect come from?
Owens et al. (1979). You can recall more when given additional information that does not pertain to the original information.
Added information that is incorrect but fits the schema.
Intrusion Error
Semantic knowledge that guides our understanding of ordered events
Scripts
Details within the script
Frames
Typicality occurs within the script
Default Value
Bower et al. (1979)
Given and asked to recall scripts and they put rearranged them (fixed them) to fit their schema.
What is HSAM?
Highly Superior Autobiographic Memory. Flashbulb memories are remembered every day.
Are there any differences in the brain of someone with HSAM?
No, because the research is still new.
A cargo plane hit an apartment and people state that they remember seeing it on video when there was no footage of it.
Crombag et al. (1996)
44% of British citizens remember seeing footage of Princess Diane’s car crash.
Ost et al. (2002)
Participants waited in an office for 30 seconds and based if there were any books in there when there weren’t any.
Brewer & Treyens (1981)
A word that was never said in a list but it fits the schema
DRM Paradigm
Participants were shown childhood pictures of them in a hot air balloon with a relative. The participants claim that they remember the incident when it never occurred.
Wade et al. (2002)
College students were provided with true or false memories during their childhood. No one believed the memories until the second interview and would provide details from the interview from the first interview.
Hyman et al. (1995)
Food poisoning.
Bernstein et al. (2005)
Memory errors result from false information received after an event.
Misinformation Effect
Inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the true source of the information.
Source Misattribution
Loftus Research
Asked if there was a yield sign at a car crash and participants said yes when there was not.
Leading people to believe details differently with different words, such as, “smash” or “bump”
Goldschmied et al. (2017)
Kassin & Kiechel (1996)
False confession. Typing and a confederate accuse the participant.
What are the factors that influence a false confession?
Age, characteristics that make the individual vulnerable and long interrogations.
How reliable is eyewitness testimony?
Not reliable
Factors that affect eyewitness identification are:
Duration of the event, cross-race effect, weapon-focus effect,the time between the event & recall, and the age of the witness
What is a reminiscence bump?
We remember more events from late adolescence and early adulthood than from any other stage of our lives
Cognitive Interview (CI)
Mental (context) reinstatement: Putting self back at the time of the crime
Different Perspectives
Different order: Recalling different order of the events - Primacy/Recency effect
In-depth reporting: Recalling details, even if irrelevant
Can repressed memories be tested?
No
George Franklin
Convicted of a murder of an 8-year-old girl because his daughter “remembered” him killing her. He was released once proven not guilty because he did not do it.
Cool
Her therapist suggested that she was abused when she was not.
Beth
Her therapist suggested she was sexually/physically abused by her father and impregnated by him. That was all false.
Frank Fitzpatrick
He recovered the memory of him being abused by a priest and it was found to be true.
Imagining something happened increases later memory that it actually did happen
Imagination Inflation
Loftus et al (1996)
Asked participants if an event ever happened and then in the next interview they were told to imagine the event which led them to believe that it had occurred. Imaging causes familiarity which creates false memories.
What is aphasia?
The loss of ability to use language resulting from a brain-related disorder/damage.
Nonfluent speech, meaning it is not being produced but can be comprehended and written out. Also involves stock phrases like “I don’t know” or “No”
Broca’s Aphasia
Fluent speech but unable to comprehend. Involves nonsense words aka Neologism.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Damage to the nerve fiber, arcuate fasciculus, that connects the Broca and Wernick areas. The individual can speak and comprehend, but they are unable to recall/repeat what was said to them.
Conduction Aphasia
The study of language is _________
Linguistics
The study of how language is learned and used by people is _________
Psycholinguistics
The shared symbolic system for communication is _________. It can be altered, diminished, or added.
Language.
Language conveys meaning is ______
Semantics
Fundamental units are meaningless, except for onomatopoeias.
Arbitrariness
Ability to talk about something other than the present, such as the past or future.
Displacement
Language is generated, not repetitive.
Productivity
Set of rules to generate utterances
Grammar
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)
Language shapes thought. (e.g.) Berinmo Tribe
Fausey & Bordoitsky (2011)
English can emphasize agents like “Sue broke the vase”. If he event was an accident, languages that did not emphasize agents, such as Spanish had a difficult time recalling who did the accident.
The coherent sequence of words that express the speaker’s intended meaning is ________.
Sentence
Smallest language units that carry meaning
Morphemes
Free Morphemes
A word that can stand alone as a word like “talk” and “play”
Bound Morphemes
Can not stand alone as a word, these are usually prefixes or suffixes like “-ed” or “-ing”
Smallest units of sounds that serve to distinguish words in a language
Phonemes
Brown and Kulik (1977)
JFK Assassination. Participants could vividly remember the event in great detail.
Talarico and Rubin (2003)
9/11. Confident in their memories but memories diminished
Conway et al. (1994)
Margaret Thatcher. Britians remembered more because she is part of their culture while other people did not.
Experts in a particular skill area has superior memory for tasks involving typical instances or similar to their particular skill domain.
Skilled Memory
Co-Witness Contamination
Memories contaminated when talked to others who are also witnesses of an event
Kalakoski & Saariluoma (2001)
Taxi drivers. Did well in route order.
An unexpected or distinct event that has strong emotional associations when remembered.
Flashbulb Memory
