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462 Final 12/8 Flashcards

1
Q

A mass of cells whose growth is uncontrolled and serves no useful function. These cells are neurons and can not be divided of reproduced.

A

Tumors

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2
Q

A cancerous tumor is

A

Malignant

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3
Q

A noncancerous tumor is

A

Benign

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4
Q

The distinct border between the mass of the tumor cells and the surrounding tissue

A

Encapsulated

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5
Q

No clear-cut border between the tumor and normal tissue, this also removes healthy tissue.

A

Infiltration

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6
Q

A tumor sheds cells that travel through the bloodstream and create new growth of new tumors.

A

Metastases

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7
Q

How do tumors damage brain tissue?

A

Compression and infiltration

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8
Q

What moves healthy tissue and creates lesions in the brain? This can destroy brain tissue directly, or it can indirectly by blocking the flow of cerebrospinal fluids that creates hydrocephalus (brain swelling)

A

Compression

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9
Q

Tumors do not arise from neurons, because mature neurons are not capable of dividing. [T/F]

A

True

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10
Q

What is a cancerous brain tumor composed of several types of glial cells? It is also very malignant, fast-growing, and has a low rate of living.

A

Glioma

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11
Q

An encapsulated, bengin brain tumor composed of cells that constitute the meninges. It is also not cancerous and has a high rate of living.

A

Meningioma

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12
Q

This disorder causes cell death due to the excitation of firing neurons that create an excessive amount of calcium (excitotoxicity). These neurons are unable to get to resting potential.

A

Seizure disorder

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13
Q

The distinction between ________ and ________ seizures relates to whether these spread from a definite focus within the brain.

A

Partial;Generalized

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14
Q

An alcoholic who abruptly stops drinking may experience a seizure because

A

of a sudden release from the inhibiting effects of the drug

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15
Q

Obstructive strokes can be caused by

A

Thrombi or emboli

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16
Q

Which of the following will produce a hemorrhagic stroke?

A

Bleeding within the brain

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17
Q

A definite focus or source of irritation. The scarred region is caused by an old injury or a developmental abnormality, it also won’t spread.

A

Partial

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18
Q

Widespread and involves the majority of the brain. This is the most common type of stroke that involves muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness, and is dramatic in its appearance.

A

Generalized

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19
Q

Cause changes in consciousness but does not allow the individual to lose consciousness as they are able to remember but unable to respond.

A

Simple partial seizures

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20
Q

This leads to loss of consciousness

A

Complex partial seizures

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21
Q

This is the most severe form of seizure and is sometimes referred to as grand mal seizure. It is also a type of generalized seizure.

A

Tonic-Clonic Seizure

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22
Q

Excitation of the neurons surrounding a seizure. Acts as a warning/feeling before having a tonic-clonic. It also tells us where the seizure starts/originates.

A

Aura

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23
Q

The beginning of a tonic-clonic where all muscles contract forcefully.

A

Tonic phase

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24
Q

Muscles begin to tremble, then start to jerk convulsively, eyes roll, violent grimaces, and tongue may be bitten.

A

Clonic phase

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25
Children have these types of seizures as they will stop what they are doing and stare off into the distance for a few seconds, often blinking their eyes repeatedly. They become unresponsive and do not notice their attacks as they can have up to a hundred times a day.
Absent Seizure
26
A patient undergoing a series of seizures without regaining consciousness is
Status epileptics
27
Evidence of hippocampus damage is correlated with the number and severity of seizures. [T/F]
True
28
Severe hippocampus damage caused by excessive release of what NT?
Excessive glutamate binds to AMPA and NMDA, allowing a calcium influx to disrupt the mitochondria which over-excites and controls the opening/closing of ion channels.
29
Causes of seizures:
- Scarring from injury - High fever from drugs or infections - Withdrawal from alcohol or barbituates....Why? Overcompensation - Genetics.... Deficits in the control of ion channels; Many instances are idiopathic ( unknown cause)
30
Treatments for seizures?
Anticonvulsant drugs, which increase the effectiveness of inhibitory synapses
31
What is a ketogenic diet?
A seizure treatment that consists of calories from fats with moderate protein and low amounts of carbohydrates. This leads to the production of ketones which are produced by the liver through the breakdown of fats when the blood level of glucose is low. It is believed that proper glucose metabolism will prevent seizures and a single meal rich in carbs will increase the risk of a seizure.
32
No symptoms occur before this stroke and alcohol and smoking drastically increase the risk of having this.
Hemorrhagic stroek
33
Is a blood clot that forms in blood vessels. Anticoagulant drugs can make the blood less likely to clot.
Thromus
34
A piece of material that forms in one part of the vascular system, breaks off and is carried throughout the bloodstream until it reaches a small artery. Antibiotics can suppress the infection.
Embolus
35
Neurons starve to death because of the lost of their supply of
Glucose and oxygen to metablolize
36
One approach to minimizing the amount of brain damage caused by strokes is
Administration of a clot-dissolving drug called tPA (tissue plasminogen activator) after the onset of a stroke has clear benefits, but only if given within three hours. Beyond these three hours, it will cause damage to the BBB and tPA goes into the brain to create issues.
37
The risk factors of strokes are
- High blood pressure - Smoking - Diabetes - High cholesterol
38
The linings of arteries develop a layer of plaque, deposits of cholesterol, fats, calcium, and cellular waste products.
Atherosclerosis
39
Atherosclerosis is not a precursor to heart attacks and ischemic stroke. [T/F]
False
40
Atherosclerotic plaques often form in the
Internal carotid artery
41
The internal carotid artery does what?
Supplies most of the blood flow to cerebral hemispheres. Plaques can cause severe narrowing of the interior of the artery, greatly increasing the risk of a massive stroke. Unblocking can cause an increase of blood flow but too much can cause brain damage.
42
Caused by degeneration of the nigrostriatal system, the dopamine-secreting neurons of substantial nigra send axons to basal ganglia.
Parkinson's Diease
43
A mutation on chromosome 4 results in a protein called
Alpha-Synuclein
44
Alpha-Synuclein becomes _________ and forms _________, especially in dopaminergic neurons.
Misfolds;Aggregates
45
Disrupts the permeability membrane, in other words, it disrupts ions that enter or exit. There is an argument over whether this creates cell dysfunction or a sign of cell dysfunction. It is also referred to as scar tissue.
Aggregate
46
What is a Lewy body?
An aggregate unique for Parkinson's.
47
What is a toxic-gain of function?
Production of a protein that produces a toxic effect (it adds something)
48
The longer the protein, the more misfolds. [T/F]
True
49
What is Parkin?
A gene mutation on chromosome 6 is also a loss of function. This mutation permits high levels of defective protein to accumulate in dopaminergic neurons. It is also responsible for the ubiquitination process.
50
The movement of defective proteins to the proteasomes by tagging them with ubiquitin (directing the movement of important proteins in the cell). It also gets rid of misfolded proteins and breaks them down into their constituent amino acids.
Ubiquitination
51
What does defective Parkin do?
It fails to ubiquitinate the abnormal proteins and accumulates them which eventually kills the cell. This mutation is a loss of function as it takes away from normal functioning. Dopaminergic neurons are sensitive to this accumulation.
52
An organelle that is responsible for destroying defective or degraded proteins within the cell.
Proteasome
53
A protein that attaches itself to faulty or misfolded proteins and targets them to be destroyed by the proteasome.
Ubiquitin
54
What is one therapeutic procedure for Parksinson's?
The destruction of the internal division of the globus pallidus (Gpi)
55
The output of the GPi which is directed through the thalamus to the motor cortex is
Inhibitory
56
Decreased release of dopamine in the caudate nucleus and putamen that is seen in Parkinson's patients causes an _________ in the activity of the Gpi
increase
57
Damage to the GPi might be expected to
Relieve Parkson's symptoms
58
What did Kaplitt et al. (2007) introduce?
- Genetically modified virus into subthalamic nucleus of Parkinson's patients. - Virus-delivered gene for GAD, an enzyme responsible for the biosynthesis of the major inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. Changes neurotransmitters from glutamate to GABA.
59
Huntington's is a genetic disorder that produces motor, cognitive, and psychiatric impairments. It is an unstable expansion of CAG (DNA sequence) and it is also the degeneration of the
Striatum and cortex
60
Fluid movement that is overexaggerated
Chorea
61
The lack of ability to initiate movement
Akinesa
62
Slowness in execution of movement
Bradykinesia
63
Abnormal posture
Dystonia
64
Htt is expressed throughout the entire brain and has a role in ____________
Intracellular functions - Protein trafficking - Vesicle transport - Endocytosis - Postsynaptic signaling - Anti-apoptotic function
65
Is responsible for Huntington's and disrupts intracellular functions
mHtt
66
Activation of proteases
N-Terminal fragments, an amino acid that develops aggregates faster. Fragments enter the nucleus.
67
Protein misfolding
Hsp-40 and Hsp-70 are heat shock proteins that are chaperone proteins, they attempt to fix refolding of misfolded proteins. If it does not fix refolding then ubiquitin is tagged to these proteins and they get destroyed ---> aggregate
67
Inhibition of protein degradation
Ubiquitin is sequestered ---> Cell death
68
What is Rhes?
It plays a role in dopaminergic signaling and behavior. It is only expressed in the striatum and had Htt expression, but it may interact with mHtt. It is also a determinant of sumoylation.
69
Deleting Rhes out of mice with HD made them less vulnerable to _____
motor and neuropathological symptoms
70
RHES-KO stands for
Rhes knockout
71
Clasping
Limbs come inward; as the disease progresses they clasp more / by 6 months they're clasping in all limbs
72
What was found in the study?
That there was about a 2-month delay in symptoms between HD/Rhes WT (normal Rhes expression) and HD/Rhes KO mice. Also removing Rhes created a decrease in brain size; when Rhes is removed you're getting a slight delay in brain degeneration
73
A modification process that regulates the stability of a protein and keeps that protein alive.
Sumoylation
74
Competes with ubiquitin to attach to a protein and alters protein-protein interactions.
SUMO
75
What enzymes are responsible for activating SUMO protein?
E1,E2, and E3
76
The activation of SUMO
E1
77
The conjugation of SUMO, binds it to the target protein.
E2
78
Aids transfer of SUMO and is responsible for target specificity (coordinates which protein SUMO binds to and this is what Rhes is)
E3
79
Sumoylation (keeps misfolded proteins alive) is inside the striatum and ubiquitination is outside the neuron. [T/F]
True
80
Subramaniam et al. (2009,1010)
- Looked at the presence of sumoylated proteins - Greatly reduced sumoylation in Rhes KO mice - Also looked at sumoylation in the cerebellum
81
Produces severe degeneration of the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, neocortex, nucleus basalis, locus coeruleus, and raphe nuclei.
Alzheimer's Diease
82
- Extracellular deposit containing a dense core of B-amyloid protein. - We all have this but people with Alzheimer's have an excessive amount - Surrounded by degenerating axons and dendrites and activated microglia and reactive astrocytes - Phagocytic glial cells destroy the axons and dendrites (cannot receive communication or encode it)
Amyloid Plaque
83
Dying neurons contain intracellular accumulations of twisted protein filaments that severed as the cell's internal skeleton.
Neurofibrillary Tangle
84
The twisted proteins are _______ that normally severe as a component of microtubules (brings nutrients NT, and etc to be relayed; Railroad tracks)
Tau Proteins
85
The formation of amyloid plaques is a result of the production of a defective form of
AB(beta)
86
A gene encodes the production of the B-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and is cut apart in two places by enzymes called ______ to produce 40 or 42 amino acid AB.
Secretases
87
Cuts the tail off
B-Secretases
88
Cuts the head off
V-Secretases
89
____ amino acid AB produces the short form in normal brains
40
90
____ amino acid AB produces long form in AD patients.
41
91
Gene on chromosomes 1 and 14 determines where secretase cut APP
Presenilin
92
Apolipoprotein E (ApoE)
- All of us have this gene and you produce one of these: if you produce E4 it interferes with our ability to get rid of misfolded proteins (ubiquitination) - E2 allele is found to protect against A disease by getting rid of misfolded proteins - This gene is on chromosome 21
93
Risk factors for AD are
Obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes, traumatic brain injury , and level of education
94
Current treatments for AD:
- Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (movement and learning) - NMDA receptor antagonists (preventing excitotoxicity from the disease-preventing the amount of calcium coming in) - These drugs have no effect on the process of neural degeneration
95
2 genetic links for Parkinson's are toxic gain on chromosome __ toxic loss on chromosome ___
4 (gain) and 6 (loss)
96
______ process is the cutting of misfolded proteins and allows them to reform properly ____ is the scissors
ubiquitin protease
97
The death of neurons following a stroke is caused by
Over-stimulation of nerve cells by abnormally high levels of glutamate

Psych (6 decks)

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