Kin 232 Module 2 Flashcards
PICOT
P- population
I - Intervention
C - Control/Comparison
O - Outcome
T - Time
purpose of PICOT
- a useful model to help strucutre an answerable question
- used to formulate clinical or research questions
- breaks down question into four/five key elements
Target Population vs Accessible Population Vs Sample
Target: Identify the population that you wish to study and hope to apply the results of your study to
Accessible Population: The portion of the target population from which you are able to recruit participants
Sample: The participants who you recruited and who met your inclusion criteria (volunteers)
Intervention in pIcot
refers to the treatment that participants in your study will receive
What is it you want to know the effect of
intervention groups do not always need to be manipulated
Control/comparison in piCot
To determine if the intervention worked/changed something
A group that intervention is compared to
Can be two/or more levels of the same variable
Not always needed
Outcome in picOt
What are you observing or measuring
Dependent variables
Discrete/Categorical or continuous
Time in picoT
occur over time: longitudinal
occur at one specific point in time: cross sectional
What can time also be used as?
an intervention
Null Hypothesis
A sample is representative of (equal to) a population
Intervention (exposure) and control groups will have the same outcome
No difference between groups or there’s no effect of an intervention/exposure
Alternative hypothesis
This hypothesis contradicts the null hypothesis
A sample does not represent (differs from) a population
The outcome of the intervention and control groups will differ
Research hypotheses and directionality : Non-directional
Non-directional: Predict a change or difference in the outcome measure, but you do not specify which way that change is/will go
Research hypotheses and directionality: Directional
Directional: predict the direction of the change or difference in the outcome measure between the groups
Independent variable
This is what a researcher typically manipulates in a study
It is selected by the researcher to determine its relationship/effect on some other observed variable
The independent variable is plotted on the x-axis of a graph
Dependent variable
This is what is measured or observed
This is the outcome of interest as selected by the researcher
The dependent variable is plotted on the y-axis of a graph
Control variables
These are variables that are held constant by researchers
The goal is to minimize the effects that these variables might have on the dependent variable or other aspect of the study
Cofounding variables
These are variables other than the independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent cariable
They can lead to erroneous conclusions about the relatiobship between the independent and dependent variables
Intervening Variable
a conceptual variable
difficult to define/measure
ex. health
Reliability
referred to as repeatability or precision
- researcher should consistently get the same output when providing the same input or performing the same measurement
True reliability occurs when our measurements are consistent and free from random errors
Factors effecting test-retest reliability
- Effects of testing
- Effects of test/re-test intervals
- Rater bia
- External factors
Effects of testing
Participants ‘learn’ and perform better on subsequent trials
Effects of test/retest intervals
Too much rest = boredom
Too little rest = fatigue (physical/mental)
Rater bias
People will perform measurement’s slightly differently
Same person should measure the outcome on all participants
External factors
Ambient conditions , noise, temperature, distractions
Validity
the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure
‘believability’ or ‘trueness’ of results
Can a measurement device be reliable but no valid
yes. sometimes an instrument can be reliable but may not be measuring exactly what you are intending to measure
Internal validity
the degree to which a study establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the treatment (independent variable) and the outcome (dependent variable)
Threats to internal validity
Selection
History
Maturation
Testing
instrumentation
Attrition
How to control for/mitigate threats to internal validity
Attrtion/withdrawl/drop-out : intention to analyze all data is analyzed regardless of subjects dropping out or receiving a treatment when they should really be in the control group
External validity
refers to whether casual relationships can be generalized to different measures, persons, settings, and times
In other words, how generalizable/applicable are the findings to a wider setting
Threats to external validity
Selection of participants
Selection of treatment
Multiple treatment effects
Repeated testing
Ways to mitigate threats to external validity
Random sampling: randomly drawing people froma. target population to participate in your research
Selecting an appropriate research design: reduce the multiple treatment and testing threats. Washout periods will help mitigate the multiple treatment effect
Critical appraisal of research
process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context. It is an essential skill for evidence based medicine because it allow people to find and use research evidence relaibly and efficiently
Social and clinical value
Will answering the research question have a significant value for society or for present or future patients with a particular illness?
Scientific validity
is the question researchers are asking answerable? Are the research methods valid and feasible? Is the study designed with a clear scientific objective and does it use accepted principles, methods, reliable practices
Fair subject selection
The primary basis for recruiting and enrolling groups and individuals should be the scientific goals of the study - not vulnerability, privilege, or other factors unrelated to the purposes of the study
Favourable risk-benefit ratio
Risks can be physical (death, disability, infection), psychological (depression, anxiety , economic (job loss), or social (for example, discrimination or stigma from participating in a certain trial)
Has everything been done to minimize the risks and inconvenience to research subjects
Independent review
to minimize potential conflicts of interest and make sure a study is ehtically acceptable, an independent review panel with no vested interest in the study should review the proposal and ask question
Informed consent
informed consent - individuals are accurately informed, understand the info and how it relates to them, make voluntary decision to participate
