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Biology Year 2 > KIDNEY AND DISEASES > Flashcards

KIDNEY AND DISEASES Flashcards

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1
Q

by what process do plants uptake nitrates

A

facilitated diffusion

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2
Q

do plants excrete nitrogen-containing molecules

A

no they do not

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3
Q

what happens to excess amino acids in animals

A

they are deaminated in the liver and converted to other molecules which are excreted

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4
Q

do animals excrete nitrogen-containing molecules

A

no

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5
Q

can excess amino acids that are not used for protein synthesis be stored by the body

A

no

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6
Q

deamination

A

the removal of the amino group from amino acids to leave pyruvate and ammonia

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7
Q

what happens to the ammonia formed from deamination

A

converted to urea in the liver

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8
Q

what happens to the pyruvic acid left after deamination

A

used in respiration as a source of energy or it is converted to fat and stored

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9
Q

what nitrogenous waste do aquatic animals excrete

A

ammonia

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10
Q

is ammonia soluble

A

yes

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11
Q

what happens to ammonia in freshwater fish

A

it is lost as ammonium ions across the epithelium of the gills.

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12
Q

what happens to ammonia in soft-bodied vertebrates

A

diffuses across the whole body surface of the fish into surrounding waters

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13
Q

is uric acid soluble in water

A

no

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14
Q

is uric acid toxic

A

no

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15
Q

organisms that release uric acid as their major nitrogenous waste

A

land snails, insects, birds and some reptiles

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16
Q

in what state is uric acid released

A

as a precipitate

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17
Q

organisms that excrete urea as their major nitrogenous waste

A

most terrestrial animals

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18
Q

order these in terms of least toxic to most toxic
ammonia
uric acid
urea

A

uric acid
urea
ammonia

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19
Q

why is excreting urea more advantageous to land animals than excreting ammonia

A

it enables them to lose less water while discarding their nitrogenous waste

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20
Q

homeostasis

A

the maintenance of a relatively constant environment for the cells within the body

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21
Q

things in the body that can be controlled by homeostasis

A

temperature
ph
salt levels
glucose levels

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22
Q

importance of homeostasis

A

helps obtain optimal conditions for cellular reactions
gives organisms independence from the external environment while still existing within it

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23
Q

homeostasis is maintained through a combination of ………….. and …………… mechanisms, often by ……………..

A

nervous and hormonal
negative feedback

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24
Q

negative feedback

A

the term to describe the fact that when a factor moves away from the ideal/norm, a set of processes move it back towards normal again

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25
Q

hormones

A

molecules that are released by the endocrine glands directly into the blood that travels to a target organ to produce an effect

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26
Q

endocrine glands

A

the ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood

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27
Q

target cells/tissues

A

cells that have receptors that are embedded in the plasma membrane that are complementary in shape to specific hormone molecules

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28
Q

exocrine gland

A

a gland that secretes substances into a duct

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29
Q

functions of a kidney

A

filters the blood to remove nitrogenous metabolic waste to produce urine

osmoregulation

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30
Q

osmoregulation

A

the control of water and solute composition of bodily fluids

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31
Q

where do the kidneys receive blood from and where is the blood returned to

A

the renal artery and it is returned via the vena cava to the renal vein

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32
Q

what does the renal cortex contain

A

the glomeruli(bowman’s capsule)

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33
Q

what does the renal medulla contain

A

the loop of Henle and the collecting ducts

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34
Q

the function of the renal pelvis

A

empties urine into the ureter

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35
Q

the function of the vasa recta

A

blood in the vasa recta delivers nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the nephrons

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36
Q

ultrafiltration

A

the filtration of small molecules from blood plasma to the lumen of the bowman’s capsule under high pressure

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37
Q

location of ultrafiltration

A

the bowman’s capsule

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38
Q

the high filtration pressure of the glomerulus is caused by

A

the high hydrostatic pressure in the renal artery
the difference in diameter of the afferent and efferent arterioles

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39
Q

which is narrower, the afferent or the efferent arteriole

A

the efferent arteriole

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40
Q

nephron

A

an individual filtering unit

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41
Q

what structures do the cortex contain

A

Proximal convoluted tubule
distal convoluted tubule
the glomerulus
bowman’s capsule

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42
Q

what structures do the medulla contain

A

the henle loop
collecting duct
capillaries

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43
Q

what do the walls of the capillary(endothelium) of the glomerulus contain

A

pores known as fenestrae

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44
Q

what is the basement membrane of the glomerulus made up of

A

extra-cellular layer of proteins, mainly collagen and glycoproteins

45
Q

function of the basement membrane

A

it is a molecular sieve that forms the selective barrier between the blood and the bowman’s capsule

46
Q

what is the wall of the bowman’s capsule made up of

A

squamous epithelial cells known as podocytes

47
Q

podocytes have large extensions called ………

A

pedicels

48
Q

where can pedicels be found, and what are the large gaps between them called

A

they are wrapped around the capillary and the gaps are called filtration slits

49
Q

explain how the structure of the glomerulus and the renal capsule allows for ultrafiltration to occur

A

the blood entering the glomerulus is separated from the space inside the the bowman’s capsule by two layers and a basement membrane

50
Q

can molecules in the blood with RMM less than 30000 cross the basement membrane

A

yes

51
Q

can molecules in the blood with RMM more than 30000 cross the basement membrane

A

no

52
Q

what are the molecules in the PCT after ultrafiltration called

A

the glomerular filtrate

53
Q

name four components of the glomerular filtrate

A

water
glucose
amino acids
urea
vitamins
sodium ions…(salts)

54
Q

why causes glomerular filtration to occur?
explain

A

water potential
the net effect of hydrostatic pressure in the capillary and low solute potential in the bowman’s capsule causes water to move out of the blood

55
Q

where does selective reabsorption occur

A

the PCT(proximal convoluted tubule)

56
Q

what is selective reabsorption

A

the reabsorption of all the glucose and amino acids and most of the water and mineral ions from the glomerular filtrate back into the blood

57
Q

adaptations of the PCT that allows for selective reabsorption

A

many mitochondria for the active transport of glucose and mineral ions

they have microvilli, which provides a large surface area for co-transport

they have a close association with the capillary, this provides a short diffusion pathway

tight junctions between cells. this prevents molecules from diffusing between cells, or from the cell back into the filtrate

58
Q

is selective reabsorption a passive or an active process

A

it could be either, but most of it uses membrane pumps(passive)

59
Q

describe the process of selective reabsorption using bullet points

A

Co-transport of glucose with Na+ via facilitated diffusion into the cell

diffusion through cell

Glucose diffuses through a channel protein into the capillary of and Na+ are taken actively

water moves freely out of the filtrate into the blood by osmosis because ions and glucose leave the filtrate, so it’s solute potential decreases

urea is reabsorbed by diffusion in the PCT as there is a higher concentration of it in the filtrate than in the blood

creatinine and uric acid are actively secreted into the lumen of the PCT

60
Q

percentage of water reabsorbed in selective reabsorption

A

90

61
Q

percentage of urea reabsorbed in selective reabsorption

A

50

62
Q

describe the Na+/glucose co-transport in bullet points

A

sodium ions pumped out of the cell ad potassium ions pumped in by active transport

there is now a higher concentration of Na+ in the filtrate than in the cell, so Na+ moves into the cell via facilitated diffusion

channel protein only allows Na+ to diffuse if it is coupled with glucose

so Na+ brings glucose back into the cells/tissues

a channel protein allows glucose to pass into the blood down it’s concentration gradient via facilitated diffusion.

this is called secondary active transport

63
Q

FUNCTION OF THE LOOP OF HENLE

A

to conserve water

64
Q

which limb of the loop of Henle is
permeable to water
not permeable to water

A

descending limb
ascending limb

65
Q

describe the events that take place in the loop of Henle

A

Na+ and Cl- are actively pumped out of the ascending limb, causing the solute potential in the medulla tissue fluid to increase

water moves out of the descending limb by osmosis. the water does not dilute the solute potential of the medulla because it is transported directly to the blood capillaries of the nearby vasa recta, so it is reabsorbed into the blood

the fluid in the descending limb becomes more concentrated as it moves down due to the water loss

the filtrate in the descending limb and the tissue fluid of the medulla are most concentrated at the tip of the loop of henle

66
Q

what is the relationship between the length of the loop of henle and the environment of the organism

A

terrestrial organisms that live in areas where there is limited amounts of water have longer loop of henle as they need to reabsorb as much water as possible

aquatic animals, living in areas where water is abundant have a short loop of henle, as they do not need to reabsorb as much water from the glomerular filtrate

humans have a moderate length of loop of henle.

67
Q

the sites of osmoregulation

A

the DCT
the collecting duct

68
Q

the permeability of the DCT and the collecting duct is regulated by proteins known as ?

A

hormones

69
Q

osmoregulation

A

homeostatic control of water and solute concentration of the blood

70
Q

osmoregulation is an example of …………. feedback

A

negative

71
Q

what is the name of the hormone released during osmoregulation

A

ADH( Antidiuretic hormone)

72
Q

describe the events that occur when there is a decrease in water potential of the blood

A

osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the decrease in water potential of the blood flowing through it

the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases ADH

cells of the collecting duct and of the kidney nephron (aka target cells) become more permeable to water, due to aquaporins fusing with the cell membrane

more water is reabsorbed from the collecting ducts into the blood.

73
Q

describe the events that occur when there is an increase in water potential of the blood plasma

A

osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the increase

posterior lobe of the pituitary gland stops the release of ADH

target cells become less permeable to water, due to aquaporins moving out of the membrane

less water reabsorbed from the collecting duct into the blood

74
Q

can ADH pass through membranes

A

no
so it binds to receptors on the membranes

75
Q

what happens after ADH binds to receptors on the membranes

A

secondary messengers travel through the cytoplasm to cause vesicles containing aquaporins to fuse with membrane

76
Q

why are tea and coffee diuretics

A

they contain caffeine which increases the production of urine, thereby making them diuretics

77
Q

what happens when the kidney fails

A

there is a build up of urea to toxic levels
excess water in bodily fluids causes reactants for chemical reactions to become diluted

78
Q

the main causes of kidney diseases

A

high blood pressure
infection
loss of blood pressure due to dehydration or blood loss
Auto-immune disease
diabetes
Crushing injuries that might affect the kidney structure

79
Q

why are treatments required when both kidneys fail

A

to reduce the concentration of toxic wastes
to regulate the volume of bodily fluids, therefore the solute potential

80
Q

name treatments for kidney failure

A

drugs
dialysis
kidney transplants
low protein diets to reduce urea formation

81
Q

state two drugs to reduce blood pressure and state what they do

A

calcium channel blockers: they dilate blood vessels, thereby reducing the pressure of blood flowing through them

beta blockers: they reduce the effect of adrenaline which increases blood pressure

82
Q

potassium and calcium ion concentrations in body fluids are usually regulated by ……….

A

reabsorption in the small intestine and selective reabsorption in the PCTs

83
Q

what does high potassium concentrations in the blood lead to

A

heart arrhythmias(irregular heart rhythms)

84
Q

treatment for heart arrhythmias

A

the use of glucose and insulin together with intravenous calcium to stabilise the heart muscle membranes

85
Q

which diseases can be caused by high calcium concentration in the blood

A

kidney stones and osteoporosis, and heart diseases

86
Q

how is high concentration of calcium in the blood treated

A

by using bisphosphonates, that cause calcium to to accumulate in the bones, thereby reducing the concentration of calcium in the blood

87
Q

osteoclasts

A

cells that break down bones, causing calcium to be released into the blood

88
Q

dialysis

A

the process of removing nitrogenous waste and excess water from the blood

89
Q

how many types of dialysis are there? state them

A

2
Haemodialysis

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis(CAPD)

90
Q

haemodialysis

A

in haemodialysis, a dialysis machine is used to separate the blood to be cleaned and the dialysis fluid with a selectively permeable membrane

91
Q

describe what happens in haemodialysis

A

blood is taken from an artery in the arm

blood is passed through thousands of narrow fibres(artificial capillaries) made from selectively permeable dialysis tubing

the fibers are surrounded by dialysis fluid

the pores of the tubing allow small molecules to move through but not larger molecules such as blood cells, platelets pr proteins

the blood and the fluid run through the machine in opposite directions, which encourages the diffusion of substances out of the blood. this is a counter-current mechanism

the blood is returned to the vein

heparin is added to the blood to thin it and prevent clotting

the dialysis fluid has the same water potential as the blood but has a lower ion concentration and no urea. this creates a concentration gradient between the blood and the dialysis fluid

ions and urea diffuse down their concentration gradients, out of the blood via pores in the dialysis tubing and into the dialysis fluid. This happens until equilibrium is reached

water follows by osmosis down it’s water potential gradient

no glucose diffuses out of the blood as the dialysis fluid has the same glucose concentration as the blood

fresh dialysis fluid constantly passes through the machine in order to maintain the concentration gradient and the used fluid is discarded.

92
Q

why is CAPD termed ambulatory

A

because the patient can walk around and be active whilst it’s being carried out

93
Q

describe what happens in CAPD

A

this form of dialysis uses the peritoneum, a layer of tissue that lines the abdomen. it has a rich supply of blood and acts as the dialysis membrane

a catheter is inserted into the abdominal cavity and dialysis fluid is passed into the abdominal cavity

ions and urea pass from the blood in the capillaries into the dialysis fluid

after 40 minutes, the fluid is drained from the abdomen using gravity, into an empty bag

the fluid is changed about 4 times each day

94
Q

make 4 comparisons between hemodialysis and CAPD

A

Haemodialysis takes several hours while CAPD is less time consuming

With Haemodialysis, the patient is unable to carry out other activities while with CAPD, the patient can carry out normal activities

More expensive machinery is needed for Haemodialysis

Haemodialysis is more efficient in removing salts, urea and excess water

there is a greater risk of infection of the peritoneum in CAPD due to the catheter

CAPD can be carried out at home, so fewer visits to the hospital are required

95
Q

is water reabsorbed in the PCT

A

yes some water is

96
Q

how do desert animals get water from dry seeds? ( don’t try to understand this, just learn it)

A

through respiration of the seed

through consumption of the fats and oils of the seed

via the metabolic water of the seed

97
Q

effect of a large loss of blood from the body on the filtration rate of an organism

A

Hydrostatic blood pressure will decrease
The filtration rate decreases as a result, as there is not as much pressure to force out the same volume of filtrate as before

98
Q

advantages of uric acid( apart from it being less toxic than the other forms of excretion)

A

it reduces body mass
it is light for flight
it has little mass, so it is easy to store

99
Q

drugs that increase blood pressure and how they do it

A

ACE( Angiotensin-converting enzyme) and ARBs(angiotensin-receptor blockers): they reduce the effect of the hormone angiotensin which causes blood vessel constriction, thereby increasing pressure in the vessels

100
Q

suggest conditions that can lead to ADH secretion

A

Blood loss
vomiting

101
Q

explain how the nephron and its blood supply are adapted for ultrafiltration

A

blood in the glomerulus has a high hydrostatic blood pressure

glomerular capillaries have fenestraes to let the glomerular filtrate out

the basement membrane has podocytes and pedicels to increase the filtration rate

the basement membrane of the glomerulus is permeable to small molecules like water and glucose

it has a glomerulus that forces the glomerular filtrate out of the blood traveling at a high hydrostatic blood pressure

102
Q

suggest why a patient with kidney disease might be advised to have a diet low in sodium chloride

A

excess salt would not need to be removed

high salt in diet could cause high blood pressure

103
Q

ADH is released by the anterior pituitary gland, true or false

A

false, it is released by the posterior pituitary gland

104
Q

how are chloride ions selectively reabsorbed

A

by facilitated diffusion through channel proteins, down their concentration gradient

105
Q

how is water selectively reabsorbed

A

by osmosis down it’s water potential gradient, through a partially permeable membrane

106
Q

how are sodium ions selectively reabsorbed

A

actively transported out of the cell through sodium-potassium pumps
reabsorbed by facilitated diffusion through channel proteins
ATP is used

107
Q

how are glucose and amino acids selectively reabsorbed

A

by facilitated diffusion, down their concentration gradient through channel proteins, coupled with sodium ions which were actively transported out of the cell.

108
Q

suggest how sodium chloride and glucose improve reabsorption in the kidneys

A

the more glucose and sodium chloride consumed, the more there will be in the blood.

so more glucose and sodium chloride will be present in the glomerular filtrate after ultrafiltration

more glucose co-transported

water potential lowered, so more water is reabsorbed by osmosis

Biology Year 2 (21 decks)

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