Key Thinkers

Question 1

key liberal thinkers

Answer 1

John Locke (1632 – 1704)

John Stuart Mill (1806 – 73)

John Rawls (1921 – 2002)

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 – 97)

Betty Friedan (1921 – 2006)

Question 2

John Locke: who was he? what is his most important work?

Answer 2

the leading philosopher of the Whig movement, the forerunner of the Liberal Party

supported the ‘Glorious Revolution’ of 1688 in which James II was replaced by William III and Mary II – this event was hugely important as it was the foundation of Britain’s constitutional monarchy

most important work – Two Treatises of Government (1690)

Question 3

John Locke: what type of government did he advocate for?

Answer 3

advocated for limited government – government should be limited and based on consent from below, this idea has been central to liberalism for centuries

government derives its legitimacy from the people, it does not have an inherent, God-given right to rule over others

it should govern in accordance with natural rights and should serve in the interests of the people – classical liberal view that the state should serve the individual

Question 4

John Locke: what did he argue about the government in Two Treatises of Government?

Answer 4

in Two Treatises of Government (1960) he strongly opposed the unrestrained exercise of power and argued that state power should be restricted by law

he believed that both the rulers and the people should be subject to law and be held accountable for their actions

without the restriction of power, the people would be like animals on a farm – they would be kept by the farmer and prevented from harming each other but there would be no guarantee that the farmer will not harm them

arbitrary rule (a form of government in which the ruler has unlimited power and is not restrained by law) is not in anyone’s best interests

Question 5

John Locke: quote about absolute monarchy

Answer 5

“it is evident that absolute monarchy… is indeed inconsistent with civil society, and so can be no form of civil government at all”

Question 6

John Locke: what should government not interfere with?

Answer 6

government should exercise tolerance in religious matters and not interfere with private conscience and belief

we are entitled to certain freedoms (although, Locke did not extend this toleration to atheism)

Question 7

John Locke: what were his ideas on the social contract?

Answer 7

society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement, such an agreement exists between the people and their rulers (a social contract)

people should accept the authority of government as long as the government adheres to the social contract which involves serving in the interests of the people and protecting property rights

if the government breaks its contract with the people by abusing their natural rights, they are entitled to resist the government and overthrow it if necessary

Question 8

John Locke: quote on the purpose of government

Answer 8

“the great and chief end of men uniting into commonwealths and putting themselves under government is the preservation of their property”

Question 9

John Locke: what were his views on equality?

Answer 9

Locke’s philosophy was based on the doctrine of natural rights and laws – he believed that people are equal in rights and must respect each other’s rights

his ideas influenced the US Declaration of Independence

did not believe in democracy or political equality in the modern sense – his writings are unclear on whether he supported equality between men and women

Question 10

John Locke: what were his views on human nature?

Answer 10

believed in reason and held that no rational person would submit to arbitrary rule

Question 11

Mary Wollstonecraft: who was she? what was her most well-known work?

Answer 11

an early feminist writer, best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

her work represents an extension of liberalism that is now taken for granted but put her ahead of her time during the 18th century

Question 12

Mary Wollstonecraft: what were her views on human nature?

Answer 12

women are rational, independent beings capable of reason

Question 13

Mary Wollstonecraft: what was society like at the time she was writing? how did this influence her views on equality?

Answer 13

she advocated for formal equality

Wollstonecraft lived in a time where women were seen as inferior to men: they lacked legal independence, when they married their husbands took control of almost every aspect of their lives including their property and it was near impossible to pursue a career outside the home

she described women as “slaves.. in a political and civil sense”

Question 14

Mary Wollstonecraft: what did she argue about formal equality?

Answer 14

she argued that women are no less rational than men, they are therefore entitled to the same social and political rights including the right to an education and the right to own property – this is an exemplification of formal equality

formal equality is the idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society

she wanted women to possess this and be able to enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career rather than being economically dependent on men

in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and the opportunity to pursue a career

the key to achieving formal equality is education, which would enable women to gain self-respect and realise their potential

Question 15

Mary Wollstonecraft: what did she argue about marriage?

Answer 15

the tyranny of men over women in marital relationships must be resisted because it prevents people from being good citizens, marriage should be a partnership of equals

“the divine right of husbands, like the divine right of kings, may, it is hoped… be contested without danger”

she valued marriage as an institution and insisted that marriage must be a partnership of equals – she married a radical intellectual, William Godwin and had a daughter named Mary Shelley who became the author of Frankenstein

Question 16

Mary Wollstonecraft: what were her views on equality of opportunity?

Answer 16

she advocated equality of opportunity in that she wanted women to have the opportunity to choose between marriage, having children and pursuing a career

women should have an equal chance to dictate their lives, just like men

believed that due to biology, women would naturally opt for marriage and children but this was no less virtuous than a career – essentially, women should be able to choose between the two routes

wanted equality of opportunity extended to both men and women without distinction – everyone should have equal opportunities to rise and fall in life and make their own decisions

Question 17

Mary Wollstonecraft: what were her views on freedom?

Answer 17

she wanted women to be free to choose between marriage and having children and pursuing a career

Question 18

John Stuart Mill: who was he? what was his most important work?

Answer 18

initially influenced by his father (who was a utilitarian philosopher) and Jeremy Bentham (founder of the utilitarian movement)

represents a bridge between classical and modern liberalism

most important work – On Liberty (1859)

Question 19

John Stuart Mill: what were his views on freedom?

Answer 19

people have the right to express their views and this should be accepted

harm principle – the idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals or restrict the freedom of others

Question 20

John Stuart Mill: what were his views on tolerance?

Answer 20

upheld the idea of tolerance – it’s important to tolerate behaviour or ideas that are different to one’s own

people have the right to express a minority view and this should be accepted, just because a view is widely held across society doesn’t mean that this view is correct

the right to express minority views, from events in his own life – he spent a night in jail for trying to advise the poor on contraception which was a taboo subject in Victorian England, he led an unconventional private life as he lived for 21 years with a woman he loved and her husband, he married her after her husband died

Question 21

John Stuart Mill: what were his views on human nature?

Answer 21

rationalism – humans are rational and capable of reason so are best qualified to judge their own interests

disagreed with the view that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain was the sole motivation of human beings, instead arguing that the betterment of human civilisation was no less important as a goal

Question 22

John Stuart Mill: what were his views on the state?

Answer 22

“the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community against his will is to prevent harm to others”

advocated for limited government

harm principle – explained in his book On Liberty, it is the idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals or restrict the freedom of others

accepted that some degree of state intervention is needed to prevent the poor from enduring injustice – e.g. inheritance tax

Question 23

John Stuart Mill: what did he make a distinction between? how did this inform his view on the state?

Answer 23

he made a distinction between ‘self-regarding’ actions that only affect the individual responsible for that action and ‘other regarding’ actions which affect other individuals such as violent or disorderly conduct

the government has so business interfering in people’s lives when their actions are self-regarding, it should only intervene in people’s lives when their actions threaten to harm others or restrict the freedom of others

Question 24

John Stuart Mill: what were his views on equality?

Answer 24

equality of opportunity – he was in favour of inheritance tax because he believed that the handing down of wealth from one generation to the next gave some individuals advantage over others and it was unfair as they had not earned this advantage

believed in the complete equality of men and women and during his brief period as a Liberal MP he championed votes for women, but was unsuccessful in bringing about change

Question 25

John Rawls: what was his best known work?

Answer 25

best known work – A Theory of Justice (1971), which attempts to reconcile individual freedom with the avoidance of excessive inequality in society

Question 26

John Rawls: what were his views on the state?

Answer 26

Rawls advocated for an enabling state – a state that allows individuals to achieve their potential and pursue personal development

a just society could be provided by the state via a significant redistribution of wealth, extensive public spending and progressive taxation

he argued that the state should help improve the lives of the poor but did not support the idea of equality of outcome, he recognised that there would still be inequalities of outcome due to individual differences

Question 27

John Rawls: what were his views on the economy?

Answer 27

rejected the two extremes of communism and unregulated capitalism

favoured a ‘property-owning democracy’ in which ownership is widely distributed and the poorest members of society can be economically independent

rejected utilitarianism (a theory stating that the best action is the one that maximizes utility) because it did not take account of the range of desires and goals pursued by individual people and some would find their interests ignored

Question 28

John Rawls: what were his views on society in relation to his theory of justice?

Answer 28

theory of justice – society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living

society can be said to be fair when we can state that no one would care what circumstances they were born into and one in which the difference in outcomes for the richest and the poorest is kept to a minimum

there will always be a degree of inequality but a fair society is one in which the difference in outcomes for the richest and the poorest is kept to a minimum

Question 29

John Rawls: what were his views on society in relation to the original position?

Answer 29

he envisaged the ‘original position’ – a hypothetical scenario where people would have to decide on a society that they want, they would devise it behind a ‘veil of ignorance’ in which they would be unaware of their position in this society

they would not be certain about how successful they would be so they would need to adopt a low risk strategy so that if they found themselves at the bottom of society they would not suffer unduly

such a scenario requires us to place ourselves in the position of others, consider the danger of being born into poverty and evaluate social contracts by how well the least advantaged are affected

Question 30

John Rawls: what did he argue would happen under the original position?

Answer 30

in the ‘original position’, rather than take the risk of being put into the bottom of society and suffering, Rawls believed that people would want a fairer society with adequate housing, safe neighbourhoods, a good education system and an unbiased criminal justice system for all

they would agree on the importance of equal rights including freedom of speech and the right of assembly, they would also want an accepted minimum standard of living

they would agree to the ‘difference principle’ which allows people to enjoy as much freedom as possible, provided that it is not exercised at the expense of others

there would be inequality in such a society but it would only be tolerated if it did not make those at the bottom significantly worse off

Question 31

John Rawls: what were his views on equality?

Answer 31

everyone has an equal entitlement to certain basic rights and liberties but there should be economic justice in society

economic justice is a set of moral principles for building economic institutions, the ultimate goal is to create an opportunity for each person to create a sufficient material foundation upon which to have a dignified, productive, and creative life

“it may be expedient but it is not just that some should have less in order that others should prosper”

advocated formal equality – equal status for all members of society regardless of social background

did not support the idea of equality of outcome, he recognised that there would still be some degree of inequality due to individual differences

Question 32

John Rawls: what was his view on human nature?

Answer 32

humans are rational and empathetic

for example, under the veil of ignorance, most people would favour a society where the poorest members do not suffer unduly

they would create a society in which inequality is not too great and those at the bottom do not fall below a certain standard

“a society regulated by a public sense of justice is inherently stable”

Question 33

Betty Friedan: who was she? what was her most important work?

Answer 33

an American liberal feminist

often viewed as a continuation of Mary Wollstonecraft – the fact that she was arguing the same ideas almost two centuries later showed the lack of progress made in this period

most important work – The Feminine Mystique (1963)

Question 34

Betty Friedan: what were her views on equality?

Answer 34

advocated for equality between men and women – believed that women are as capable as men and oppressive laws and social views must be rejected

women are held back from fulfilling their potential by unfair ideas about the kind of employment they can take up

she believed that social conditioning rather than biology is what led women to become wives and homemakers rather than seeking to pursue a career – family, school, cultural and religious institutions, etc all conditioned women to become wives

she did accept that some women wanted to become wives and mothers, and this route is not less valid than wanting to pursue a career – women should be able to choose

for many women, being confined to a domestic role led to deep unhappiness and unfulfillment

Question 35

Betty Friedan: what did she help to found?

Answer 35

helped to found the National Organisation for Women (NOW) which became the largest women’s rights organisation in the world

it aimed to bring women fully into the mainstream of society alongside men and to secure the enforcement of anti-discrimination laws by the federal government

Question 36

Betty Friedan: quote about equality

Answer 36

“a girl should not expect special privileges because of her sex, but neither should she adjust to prejudice and discrimination”

Question 37

Betty Friedan: equality of opportunity

Answer 37

equality of opportunity – argued for wider opportunities for women and for a change of attitudes in favour of greater equality between the sexes

sought to make reforms within the existing structure of society rather than fundamentally transforming it

a level playing field should be created to enable women to compete equally with men instead of being restricted to a narrow range of what were considered ‘acceptable’ occupations

individuals are of equal worth; therefore, we are all entitled to equal rights

Question 38

Mary Wollstonecraft: key quotations

Answer 38

“virtue can only flourish among equals”

“the mind has no gender” (everyone is equally capable of rationality)

“strengthen the female mind and there will be an end to blind obedience” (equality of opportunity, women deserve education on the same basis as men to allow them to flourish and reach their true potential)