Differing Views + Tensions

Question 1

what are the differing views and tensions within liberalism?

Answer 1

The two main strands of liberalism are classical and modern liberalism

The two strands disagree on freedom, how to achieve equality, individualism and the state

Question 2

what is classical liberalism?

Answer 2

Classical liberalism is the earliest form of liberalism, associated with the rise of industrial capitalism in the 18th and 19th centuries

Prize freedom over other values and freedom is best achieved by limiting the power of government

reinvented in the late 20th century as neoliberalism which is closely associated with the new right and influenced the Conservative party under Thatcher

Question 3

what is modern liberalism?

Answer 3

Modern liberalism emerged in the early 20th century in reaction to the growth of free market capitalism

It did not wish to abolish capitalism or replace private ownership with state control of the economy but did believe in regulating the market to counter excessive deprivation and inequality caused by freemarket capitalism

Do not believe that people can be truly free if simply ’left alone’ by the state

Question 4

freedom: how do the different strands of liberalism view freedom?

Answer 4

Both strands value freedom but disagree over its nature and how to achieve it

Question 5

freedom: what do classical liberals believe about freedom?

Answer 5

Classical Liberals believe in negative freedom

This is freedom from something, particularly government interference, freedom is the absence of external constraints

They believe that freedom can be enhanced and expanded by restricting state power, the state must be rolled back to encourage individuals to take more responsibility for themselves (self-reliance is a key virtue to classical liberals)

dependence on the state is damaging because it undermines individual self respect and dignity and reduces our potential for enterprise upon which economic growth depends

Individuals thrive when left alone by the state

Question 6

freedom: what do modern liberals believe about freedom?

Answer 6

Modern liberals believe in positive freedom

freedom consists of more than simply being ‘left alone’ and negative freedom is not sufficient for a good society

Positive freedom is freedom to do something

People need assistance to live truly freely rather than being left alone, especially those facing disadvantages that they have no control over e.g. working in occupation prone to periods of unemployment

Freedom to modern liberals is about self mastery and self-realisation

Freedom can be expanded by state intervention in the economy and society which will widen individual opportunity and liberate citizens from social evils such as poverty, therefore granting them freedom

some state intervention in the economy to expand freedom is necessary because under freemarket capitalism not everyone can be truly free because they are held back by disadvantaged circumstances

Question 7

individualism: how do the different strands of liberalism differ in their belief in individualism?

Answer 7

Both classical and modern liberals emphasise individualism but believe in different types

Classical Liberals believe in egotistical individualism which is the idea that individual freedom is associated with self interest and self-reliance

Modern liberals favour developmental individualism which enables individuals to enjoy personal growth and empowerment, the idea that individual freedom is linked to the desire to create a society in which each person can grow and flourish

Question 8

the state: in what ways do classical and modern liberals agree on the state?

Answer 8

classical and modern liberals have some common ground on the state

Both believe in the decentralisation of government and protection of civil liberties

both argue for a limited state but disagree on how far the state should be limited

Question 9

the state: the liberal support for devolution

Answer 9

In the 19th century Gladstone tried to grant ‘Home Rule’ or self-government to Ireland

By the 20th century this equated to devolution which is the transfer of certain central government functions to elected bodies in different regions of the UK

Influenced new Labour governments which devolved powers to Scotland Wales and Northern Ireland

Liberals support such devolution because it fosters decentralisation of government

Question 10

the state: liberal support for civil liberties

Answer 10

Liberals also advocate reforms to the constitutional framework to ensure the protection of civil liberties

liberal reforms include the human rights act and freedom of information act which guarantee certain rights for citizens

Question 11

the state: a necessary evil

Answer 11

Liberals do not admire and respect the state, they see it as a necessary evil

Differ from Conservatives who value the state as an accumulation of the wisdom of the past and see it as an organic entity that cannot be changed at will without chaos and disorder as the result

Question 12

the state: mechanistic theory

Answer 12

Mechanistic theory is the theory that people created the state to serve them and act in their interests

The state is essentially a machine designed to serve the individual, its parts are equal in worth and interchangeable

All liberals subscribe to this theory

Question 13

the state: why do the different strands of liberalism disagree about the state?

Answer 13

However the two strands of liberalism disagree on the role that the state should play

Question 14

the state: what do classical liberals believe about the state? what do they believe the state’s role should be?

Answer 14

Classical Liberals believe that the state should merely lay down the conditions for orderly existence and leave all other issues in the hands of private businesses and individuals

They advocate for a minimal or nightwatchman state whose role is to maintain social order, enforce contracts and provide defence against external threats

The state should not interfere in the economic and social lives of its citizens unless it is strictly necessary to do so and the state should not undermine civil liberties

It should maintain a stable framework for trade, uphold the value of the currency and create an environment in which laissez faire capitalism can thrive

In the 19th century liberals were sceptical of state intervention — William Gladstone called it a ‘construction’ (a term that he intended negatively) and he believed it would take responsibility away from individuals

Question 15

the state: why do classical liberals oppose state intervention?

Answer 15

Classical Liberals believe that the state should not intervene as this creates a dependency culture and strips individuals of self-respect responsibility and motivation

The expansion of the welfare state since 1945 has been associated with the loss of personal responsibility, the breakdown of traditional family and growing unemployment across generations

Question 16

the state: what do some classical liberals believe in?

Answer 16

Some classical Liberals believe in social Darwinism and that natural selection applies to human society

individuals differ in talent and ability so it is unavoidable that some will succeed while others fail

Herbert Spencer author of The Man Versus The State coined the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ and maintained that those who do well are those that have adapted successfully to their economic environment, Therefore the government should not intervene to support people by providing social welfare

This also informs their views on equality — Equality of opportunity and other forms of equality should not be achieved via state intervention

Question 17

the state: what kind of state do modern liberals advocate for?

Answer 17

Modern liberals advocate for an enabling state which is a larger state that helps individuals achieve their potential and be free

They arrived at this position through a growing awareness of the inequality in the late 19th century society which they linked to low pay, unemployment and poor working conditions

Question 18

the state: what do modern liberals believe that the state should do?

Answer 18

Modern liberals argue that the state should take a more active role

They therefore support welfare policies and believe that social welfare should be targeted at those who need it most — Welfare is the best way to achieve equality of opportunity

If people are held back by social circumstances then the state has a responsibility to reduce or remove these disadvantages

This is known as welfare/social liberalism — Reflected in the liberal support for legislation to tackle the barriers that hold people back such as the race relations act and equal pay act and is also expressed in the reforms of H H Asquith’s Liberal governments before World War I (Introduced the first old age pensions, National Insurance and labour exchanges which later developed into today’s job centres)

Government should provide some welfare policies to relieve poverty rather than expecting individuals to rely solely on themselves

Question 19

the state: how was the idea of social welfare taken further?

Answer 19

The idea of social welfare was taken further by The Beveridge Report

In the mid 20th century Sir William Beveridge (a leading academic, civil servant and advisor to the pre-World War I liberal government) wrote The Beveridge Report in 1942 which was the foundation of and influence behind the postwar British welfare state

He argued that liberty should be available equally to all but such equality would not be possible if some people are still held back by the “five giants”: poverty lack of education ill-health poor living conditions and unemployment

Question 20

the state: in what ways did The Beveridge Report influence the postwar Labour government?

Answer 20

The Beveridge report had a major influence on the postwar Labour government

comprehensive National Insurance, the NHS, improved housing and improved education were all responses to the arguments he outlined in the Beveridge report

Question 21

the state: what did William Beveridge declare in his report? how does this reflect the modern liberal approach?

Answer 21

William Beveridge declared that “a starving man is not free because, until he is fed, he cannot have a thought for anything but how to meet his urgent physical needs”

This reflects the modern liberal approach — to enable individuals to flourish, some state intervention is needed

The report promised to protect people from “the cradle to the grave” against social injustice

Captured the wartime desire for a more equal and just society — People fighting for freedom against Nazism felt entitled to a better standard of living after the war

Question 22

the state: what type of economic system do modern liberals favour?

Answer 22

Modern liberals favour Keynesianism (Economic management proposed by John Maynard Keynes) which is an economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy in order to achieve full employment and price stability

Question 23

the state: what did John Maynard Keynes believe and argue for?

Answer 23

John Maynard Keynes wrote The Economic Consequences of Peace (1919) which was a critique of the Allied powers treatment of Germany at the Versailles peace conference

His most important contribution to economic thought came in reaction to the great depression of the 1930s

He argued that a self regulating freemarket is a myth and government intervention is necessary to ensure that market economies deliver sustainable growth and keep unemployment low

Government should prevent economic slump by managing the level of demand in the economy so that full employment is maintained

He represented the British government in talks with the USA which led to the creation of the World Bank and International monetary fund

Became most influential after the war when governments became more willing to act in order to correct the failings of the market

The Economic Consequences of Peace was the book that first brought him to attention although his best known book was The General (1936) in which he argued for a programme of public expenditure to create jobs and stimulate the economy

Question 24

modern and classical liberals: divisions concerning the state

Answer 24

Clear difference between classical liberals fear of the state and modern liberals willingness to use state power to promote social justice and equality

Modern liberals see the state as helping individuals to help themselves and state welfare as a means to ensure equality of opportunity

differ on the extent that they are prepared to use the state to achieve liberal objectives (E.g. classical liberalism is opposed to state intervention to achieve equality of opportunity)

They also differ on how limited the state should be (enabling versus nightwatchman state)

Disagree on the role of the state and how limited it should be — Classical liberals condemn state intervention for taking decision-making away from individuals and reducing self-reliance

However modern liberals believe that some state intervention is necessary to promote a fair society in which people can make the most of their talents and opportunities

Modern liberals advocate for an enabling state whereas classical liberals advocate for a night watchman state

Question 25

modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning the state

Answer 25

Both seek to resist an all powerful government

therefore, Share a commitment to holding the government to account, decentralising power and protecting citizens rights

both wish to limit the power of the state — They believe in the the decentralisation of power, protecting civil liberties and a system of laws to hold the government to account

The purpose of the state is to serve the individual and its institutions should be reformed as necessary to promote this

Question 27

modern and classical liberals: differences concerning freedom

Answer 27

Seek to enhance freedom in different ways — State versus non-state intervention

Different views on freedom — Negative versus positive freedom

Question 28

modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning human nature

Answer 28

Similar view of human nature

Both believe that individuals have inherent value and are capable of rational thought and decision-making (belief in rationalism)

Question 29

modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning equality

Answer 29

Both believe in equality — Formal, foundational and equality of opportunity

Both reject equality of outcome

Question 30

modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning the economy

Answer 30

Both support private ownership and capitalism and are opposed to a state controlled economy

Question 31

modern and classical liberals: differences concerning the economy

Answer 31

However classical Liberals believe in a largely self regulating freemarket economy

whereas modern liberals see flaws in capitalism so government management of the economy is necessary to minimise the negative impacts of capitalism and economic downturn including mass unemployment and poverty

Question 32

modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning individualism

Answer 32

Both advocate for individualism in one form or another

Question 33

modern and classical liberals: differences concerning equality

Answer 33

Different on how to achieve equality of opportunity

Question 34

modern and classical liberals: differences concerning human nature

Answer 34

Some differences in their views of human nature and society

Classical liberals see society as a mere collection of individuals whereas modern liberals have a more holistic view of society and believe that promotion of the common good must go hand-in-hand with individual freedom

Question 35

modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning freedom

Answer 35

both concerned with expanding freedom of the individual, albeit in different ways

Both seek to enhance individual freedom