Differing Views + Tensions Flashcards
what are the differing views and tensions within liberalism?
The two main strands of liberalism are classical and modern liberalism
The two strands disagree on freedom, how to achieve equality, individualism and the state
what is classical liberalism?
Classical liberalism is the earliest form of liberalism, associated with the rise of industrial capitalism in the 18th and 19th centuries
Prize freedom over other values and freedom is best achieved by limiting the power of government
reinvented in the late 20th century as neoliberalism which is closely associated with the new right and influenced the Conservative party under Thatcher
what is modern liberalism?
Modern liberalism emerged in the early 20th century in reaction to the growth of free market capitalism
It did not wish to abolish capitalism or replace private ownership with state control of the economy but did believe in regulating the market to counter excessive deprivation and inequality caused by freemarket capitalism
Do not believe that people can be truly free if simply ’left alone’ by the state
freedom: how do the different strands of liberalism view freedom?
Both strands value freedom but disagree over its nature and how to achieve it
freedom: what do classical liberals believe about freedom?
Classical Liberals believe in negative freedom
This is freedom from something, particularly government interference, freedom is the absence of external constraints
They believe that freedom can be enhanced and expanded by restricting state power, the state must be rolled back to encourage individuals to take more responsibility for themselves (self-reliance is a key virtue to classical liberals)
dependence on the state is damaging because it undermines individual self respect and dignity and reduces our potential for enterprise upon which economic growth depends
Individuals thrive when left alone by the state
freedom: what do modern liberals believe about freedom?
Modern liberals believe in positive freedom
freedom consists of more than simply being ‘left alone’ and negative freedom is not sufficient for a good society
Positive freedom is freedom to do something
People need assistance to live truly freely rather than being left alone, especially those facing disadvantages that they have no control over e.g. working in occupation prone to periods of unemployment
Freedom to modern liberals is about self mastery and self-realisation
Freedom can be expanded by state intervention in the economy and society which will widen individual opportunity and liberate citizens from social evils such as poverty, therefore granting them freedom
some state intervention in the economy to expand freedom is necessary because under freemarket capitalism not everyone can be truly free because they are held back by disadvantaged circumstances
individualism: how do the different strands of liberalism differ in their belief in individualism?
Both classical and modern liberals emphasise individualism but believe in different types
Classical Liberals believe in egotistical individualism which is the idea that individual freedom is associated with self interest and self-reliance
Modern liberals favour developmental individualism which enables individuals to enjoy personal growth and empowerment, the idea that individual freedom is linked to the desire to create a society in which each person can grow and flourish
the state: in what ways do classical and modern liberals agree on the state?
classical and modern liberals have some common ground on the state
Both believe in the decentralisation of government and protection of civil liberties
both argue for a limited state but disagree on how far the state should be limited
the state: the liberal support for devolution
In the 19th century Gladstone tried to grant ‘Home Rule’ or self-government to Ireland
By the 20th century this equated to devolution which is the transfer of certain central government functions to elected bodies in different regions of the UK
Influenced new Labour governments which devolved powers to Scotland Wales and Northern Ireland
Liberals support such devolution because it fosters decentralisation of government
the state: liberal support for civil liberties
Liberals also advocate reforms to the constitutional framework to ensure the protection of civil liberties
liberal reforms include the human rights act and freedom of information act which guarantee certain rights for citizens
the state: a necessary evil
Liberals do not admire and respect the state, they see it as a necessary evil
Differ from Conservatives who value the state as an accumulation of the wisdom of the past and see it as an organic entity that cannot be changed at will without chaos and disorder as the result
the state: mechanistic theory
Mechanistic theory is the theory that people created the state to serve them and act in their interests
The state is essentially a machine designed to serve the individual, its parts are equal in worth and interchangeable
All liberals subscribe to this theory
the state: why do the different strands of liberalism disagree about the state?
However the two strands of liberalism disagree on the role that the state should play
the state: what do classical liberals believe about the state? what do they believe the state’s role should be?
Classical Liberals believe that the state should merely lay down the conditions for orderly existence and leave all other issues in the hands of private businesses and individuals
They advocate for a minimal or nightwatchman state whose role is to maintain social order, enforce contracts and provide defence against external threats
The state should not interfere in the economic and social lives of its citizens unless it is strictly necessary to do so and the state should not undermine civil liberties
It should maintain a stable framework for trade, uphold the value of the currency and create an environment in which laissez faire capitalism can thrive
In the 19th century liberals were sceptical of state intervention — William Gladstone called it a ‘construction’ (a term that he intended negatively) and he believed it would take responsibility away from individuals
the state: why do classical liberals oppose state intervention?
Classical Liberals believe that the state should not intervene as this creates a dependency culture and strips individuals of self-respect responsibility and motivation
The expansion of the welfare state since 1945 has been associated with the loss of personal responsibility, the breakdown of traditional family and growing unemployment across generations
the state: what do some classical liberals believe in?
Some classical Liberals believe in social Darwinism and that natural selection applies to human society
individuals differ in talent and ability so it is unavoidable that some will succeed while others fail
Herbert Spencer author of The Man Versus The State coined the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ and maintained that those who do well are those that have adapted successfully to their economic environment, Therefore the government should not intervene to support people by providing social welfare
This also informs their views on equality — Equality of opportunity and other forms of equality should not be achieved via state intervention
the state: what kind of state do modern liberals advocate for?
Modern liberals advocate for an enabling state which is a larger state that helps individuals achieve their potential and be free
They arrived at this position through a growing awareness of the inequality in the late 19th century society which they linked to low pay, unemployment and poor working conditions
the state: what do modern liberals believe that the state should do?
Modern liberals argue that the state should take a more active role
They therefore support welfare policies and believe that social welfare should be targeted at those who need it most — Welfare is the best way to achieve equality of opportunity
If people are held back by social circumstances then the state has a responsibility to reduce or remove these disadvantages
This is known as welfare/social liberalism — Reflected in the liberal support for legislation to tackle the barriers that hold people back such as the race relations act and equal pay act and is also expressed in the reforms of H H Asquith’s Liberal governments before World War I (Introduced the first old age pensions, National Insurance and labour exchanges which later developed into today’s job centres)
Government should provide some welfare policies to relieve poverty rather than expecting individuals to rely solely on themselves
the state: how was the idea of social welfare taken further?
The idea of social welfare was taken further by The Beveridge Report
In the mid 20th century Sir William Beveridge (a leading academic, civil servant and advisor to the pre-World War I liberal government) wrote The Beveridge Report in 1942 which was the foundation of and influence behind the postwar British welfare state
He argued that liberty should be available equally to all but such equality would not be possible if some people are still held back by the “five giants”: poverty lack of education ill-health poor living conditions and unemployment
the state: in what ways did The Beveridge Report influence the postwar Labour government?
The Beveridge report had a major influence on the postwar Labour government
comprehensive National Insurance, the NHS, improved housing and improved education were all responses to the arguments he outlined in the Beveridge report
the state: what did William Beveridge declare in his report? how does this reflect the modern liberal approach?
William Beveridge declared that “a starving man is not free because, until he is fed, he cannot have a thought for anything but how to meet his urgent physical needs”
This reflects the modern liberal approach — to enable individuals to flourish, some state intervention is needed
The report promised to protect people from “the cradle to the grave” against social injustice
Captured the wartime desire for a more equal and just society — People fighting for freedom against Nazism felt entitled to a better standard of living after the war
the state: what type of economic system do modern liberals favour?
Modern liberals favour Keynesianism (Economic management proposed by John Maynard Keynes) which is an economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy in order to achieve full employment and price stability
the state: what did John Maynard Keynes believe and argue for?
John Maynard Keynes wrote The Economic Consequences of Peace (1919) which was a critique of the Allied powers treatment of Germany at the Versailles peace conference
His most important contribution to economic thought came in reaction to the great depression of the 1930s
He argued that a self regulating freemarket is a myth and government intervention is necessary to ensure that market economies deliver sustainable growth and keep unemployment low
Government should prevent economic slump by managing the level of demand in the economy so that full employment is maintained
He represented the British government in talks with the USA which led to the creation of the World Bank and International monetary fund
Became most influential after the war when governments became more willing to act in order to correct the failings of the market
The Economic Consequences of Peace was the book that first brought him to attention although his best known book was The General (1936) in which he argued for a programme of public expenditure to create jobs and stimulate the economy
modern and classical liberals: divisions concerning the state
Clear difference between classical liberals fear of the state and modern liberals willingness to use state power to promote social justice and equality
Modern liberals see the state as helping individuals to help themselves and state welfare as a means to ensure equality of opportunity
differ on the extent that they are prepared to use the state to achieve liberal objectives (E.g. classical liberalism is opposed to state intervention to achieve equality of opportunity)
They also differ on how limited the state should be (enabling versus nightwatchman state)
Disagree on the role of the state and how limited it should be — Classical liberals condemn state intervention for taking decision-making away from individuals and reducing self-reliance
However modern liberals believe that some state intervention is necessary to promote a fair society in which people can make the most of their talents and opportunities
Modern liberals advocate for an enabling state whereas classical liberals advocate for a night watchman state
modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning the state
Both seek to resist an all powerful government
therefore, Share a commitment to holding the government to account, decentralising power and protecting citizens rights
both wish to limit the power of the state — They believe in the the decentralisation of power, protecting civil liberties and a system of laws to hold the government to account
The purpose of the state is to serve the individual and its institutions should be reformed as necessary to promote this
modern and classical liberals: differences concerning freedom
Seek to enhance freedom in different ways — State versus non-state intervention
Different views on freedom — Negative versus positive freedom
modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning human nature
Similar view of human nature
Both believe that individuals have inherent value and are capable of rational thought and decision-making (belief in rationalism)
modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning equality
Both believe in equality — Formal, foundational and equality of opportunity
Both reject equality of outcome
modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning the economy
Both support private ownership and capitalism and are opposed to a state controlled economy
modern and classical liberals: differences concerning the economy
However classical Liberals believe in a largely self regulating freemarket economy
whereas modern liberals see flaws in capitalism so government management of the economy is necessary to minimise the negative impacts of capitalism and economic downturn including mass unemployment and poverty
modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning individualism
Both advocate for individualism in one form or another
modern and classical liberals: differences concerning equality
Different on how to achieve equality of opportunity
modern and classical liberals: differences concerning human nature
Some differences in their views of human nature and society
Classical liberals see society as a mere collection of individuals whereas modern liberals have a more holistic view of society and believe that promotion of the common good must go hand-in-hand with individual freedom
modern and classical liberals: similarities concerning freedom
both concerned with expanding freedom of the individual, albeit in different ways
Both seek to enhance individual freedom
