Core Ideas + Values

Question 1

core ideas and values of liberalism

Answer 1

Individualism

Freedom/liberty

The state as a necessary evil

Equality and social justice

liberal democracy

Question 2

individualism: what is individualism?

Answer 2

Individualism stresses the importance of the individual over any social group or collective body

The prioritisation of individual rights

All liberals value individualism but interpret it differently

Question 3

individualism: what is Immanuel Kant’s view on individualism?

Answer 3

Immanuel Kant (1724 to 1804), a German enlightenment thinker, argued that all individuals are unique and of equal worth, they should be used as ’ends’ and never merely as ‘means’

Individuals should not be treated as instruments to achieve a particular goal, they possess their own intrinsic value and should be viewed as such

This is a “categorical imperative” — an absolute moral requirement to perform an action for its own sake rather than for any gain

Question 4

individualism: what are the two types of individualism?

Answer 4

two types of individualism…

• Egotistical individualism
• Developmental individualism

Question 5

individualism: what is egotistical individualism?

Answer 5

Egotistical individualism is the view that people are essentially self seeking and self-reliant

Minimises the importance of society and sees society as a mere collection of independent individuals rather than a collective body

Classical Liberals believe in this type of individualism

Question 6

individualism: what is developmental individualism?

Answer 6

Developmental individualism is the view that individual freedom is linked to the desire to create a society in which each person can grow and flourish

Minimises human pursuit of self interest

Often used to justify state intervention to help the disadvantaged

Modern Liberals believe in this type of individualism

Question 7

individualism: how is tolerance linked to individualism?

Answer 7

Tolerance is linked to the importance of the individual and is a natural right that liberals believe everyone should have And should not be taken away against the will of the individual

Individuals have the right to believe and act as they please and others should tolerate this, as long as it does not harm others

Question 8

individualism: what is tolerance?

Answer 8

Tolerance is a willingness to accept values customs and beliefs even if you disagree with them

Originally referred to tolerance of different religious beliefs but now extends to a wide range of views and practices

For example liberals tend to take a relaxed view on sexual matters, they support measures to put same-sex relationships on the same legal footing as heterosexual relationships because these are private lifestyle choices and should not be legislated against

Question 9

individualism: how does tolerance link to the harm principle?

Answer 9

Tolerance links to the harm principle

Priority is given to individual rights and these rights will only be restricted if someone’s beliefs or practices endanger another’s

Question 10

individualism: what does individualism prioritise?

Answer 10

Individualism is the prioritisation of individual rights and one of these rights is the right to be tolerated by others

Places individual rights over the wider community

The community may disagree with an individual’s beliefs but should tolerate them because the individual right to be tolerated is more important than societies views

Question 11

freedom/liberty: how important is this value?

Answer 11

Freedom/liberty is the most important liberal value

Question 12

freedom/liberty: what did early liberals believe about freedom and liberty?

Answer 12

early liberals objected to the way that authoritarian governments took decisions on behalf of the people without consulting them and attempted to regulate their behaviour, thus taking away their freedoms

They also recognised that freedom cannot be absolute and must be exercised under the law to protect people from interfering with each other’s rights And prevent people from interfering with the freedom of others

John Locke argued that “the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom… where there is no law, there is no freedom”

If people have absolute freedom they have the option to take away someone else’s freedom as they can do what they please, Therefore some restraint is needed

Question 13

freedom/liberty: what is liberty central to?

Answer 13

Liberty is central to utilitarianism (an early 19th century school of thought)

Jeremy Bentham it’s leading thinker maintained that each individual can decide what is it that own interests and that human actions are motivated mainly by a desire to pursue pleasure and avoid pain

A mechanistic view of human nature and behaviour that sees people as driven by rational self interest

when applied to society it produces the idea of ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’, which might mean that minority interests are overridden by the majority

Question 14

freedom/liberty: what do utilitarians believe about liberty and the government?

Answer 14

The government should not prevent people from doing what they choose unless their actions threaten the ability of others to do what they choose

Our freedom should only be restricted if we restrict the freedom of others

Produced the idea of ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’ — but this could mean that minority interests are overridden by those of the majority

Question 15

freedom/liberty: what were John Stuart Mill’s views about freedom?

Answer 15

John Stuart Mill a classical liberal and one of the most important liberal thinkers of the 19th century began as a follower of Bentham but saw the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as too simplistic

Developed the idea of negative freedom via the harm principle

Negative freedom is freedom from interference by others

Individuals should only be subject to external restraint if their actions potentially affect others or threaten to harm them (the harm principle), But not when their actions only impact them

Question 16

freedom/liberty: what did some liberals believe about John Stuart Mill‘s view on freedom? what did this lead to the development of?

Answer 16

from the late 19th century onwards, Many liberals found John Stuart Mills concept of Negative freedom far too limited because it viewed society as Little more than a collection of independent individuals and as being made up of mere independent atoms

T H Green argued that society was an organic whole in which people pursue the common good as well as their own interests, humans are both individual and social in nature

from this came the concept of positive freedom which is freedom to and involves having the capacity to act on one’s free will and realise personal potential

We should have the freedom to control our own destiny, develop personal talents and achieve self-fulfilment (some limited state intervention is necessary to make this possible)

Question 17

freedom/liberty: what type of freedom do modern liberals endorse?

Answer 17

modern liberals endorse positive freedom

Positive freedom is the freedom to do things such as control our own destiny develop personal talents and achieve self fulfilment

Freedom is more than simply being ‘left alone’

Involves being able to act at one’s free will and realise personal potential

Some limited state intervention is necessary to make this possible

Question 18

the state as a necessary evil: what do liberals accept about the state? why do they mistrust state power?

Answer 18

Liberals accept that the state is needed to maintain social order and protect the vulnerable from exploitation

But they mistrust state power because they believe that humans are essentially self seeking, So those in power may use their power to pursue their own interests at the expense of others

Question 19

the state as a necessary evil: what did liberals oppose? what has this led them to favour?

Answer 19

Oppose the concentration of political power — they fear it gives people a greater incentive to benefit themselves and use others for their own ends

Lord Acton a liberal historian said that “power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”

This leads liberals to favour separation of powers because power corrupts and often support devolution from central government to regional bodies

Devolution occurred in the 1990s in the UK with the creation of the Scottish parliament Welsh assembly and Northern Irish assembly

The alternative to devolution is federalism which is a system of government like in the US or Germany where a number of states form a union under central government while each state has responsibility for its internal affairs

Question 20

the state as a necessary evil: what type of government do liberals advocate for?

Answer 20

Advocate a limited government in which government power is limited by checks and balances

Support constitutionalism in which government power is limited and distributed by a system of laws, this prevents the concentration and centralisation of political power

E.g. the separation of powers — Authority and power are shared by the three separate branches of government (the legislature, executive and judiciary)

E.g. checks and balances — The branches of government are given some influence over each other and act to prevent abuses of power, as in the US Constitution

Question 21

the state as a necessary evil: why do liberals favour a bill of rights?

Answer 21

Favour a bill of rights which provides a clear statement of citizens rights and defines the relationship between citizens and the state

In the US the first 10 amendments of the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights

Question 22

the state as a necessary evil: what do liberals believe that the state’s role in the economy is?

Answer 22

Believe in a limited role of the state in the economy too

Advocate for laissez faire capitalism (an economic system organised by the market, goods are produced for exchange and profit, wealth is privately owned)

Adam Smith an economist and Enlightenment thinker argued this in The Wealth of Nations (1776)

He advocated laissez faire capitalism, emphasised the role that self interest has in driving economic growth and argued for a self regulating economic system (The invisible hand of the market)

“It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the Baker that we expect our dinner, but from there regard for their own interest”

Question 23

rationalism: what is rationalism at the heart of?

Answer 23

Rationalism is at the heart of enlightenment

The development of scientific learning in the 18th and 19th centuries pushed the boundaries of human understanding and liberated people from a blind faith in established authority tradition and superstition

Therefore encouraging the liberal belief in rationalism

Question 24

rationalism: what is rationalism?

Answer 24

Rationalism is a belief in human reason

Individuals should be free to exercise their judgement about their own interests without needing to be guided by external authorities such as the state or the church

People will not always make correct decisions but it is better for them to take responsibility for themselves than to take instruction from above

Question 25

rationalism: what is rationalism linked to?

Answer 25

Linked to the idea of a progressive society where personal development of the individual promotes wider social advancement

Question 26

rationalism: what do liberals accept?

Answer 26

Accept that competition between individuals groups and nations will produce conflicts

But humans are rational so they will use reasoned debate and discussion to resolve disputes

Question 27

rationalism: examples of how liberals favour rationalism

industrial arbitration, the League of Nations, the EU

Answer 27

Late 19th century liberals helped develop methods of industrial arbitration in which a neutral third party would mediate between employers and trade unions — This would help avoid costly legal action or strikes

In international relations liberals view war as a last resort which should be avoided at all costs — In the early 20th century liberals supported the league of Nations which later became the United Nations an organisation that sought to bring countries together to discuss their disputes

Many liberals today support the EU because member states surrender some of their national sovereignty and derive benefits through association with each other, like access to a large trading area

Question 28

equality and social justice: what type of equality do liberals advocate for?

Answer 28

Liberals emphasise equality of opportunity which is the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall, everyone should be free to reach their potential

They reject equality of outcome and accept differing outcomes because people have different abilities and potential, they believe equality of outcome is neither possible nor desirable

Question 29

equality and social justice: foundational equality

Answer 29

Liberalism is based on a belief in foundational equality which is the idea that everyone is born equal with equal rights which cannot be taken away

US declaration of independence inspired by John Locke

Question 30

equality and social justice: formal equality

Answer 30

Liberals also believe in formal equality

this is the idea that all individuals should have the same legal and political rights in society including equality before the law and equal voting rights in free and fair elections

Question 31

equality and social justice: why do socialists criticise liberalism?

Answer 31

Socialists criticise liberalism for not doing enough to tackle inequality

liberalism rejects equality of outcome and is too closely linked to the capitalist idea of competition

Socialists aim to achieve equality of outcome by using the state to redistribute wealth but liberals believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently

Question 32

equality and social justice: why do liberals believe that social inequality is beneficial to society?

Answer 32

Liberals believe that the resulting social inequality from rejecting equality of outcome is beneficial to society because it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their abilities

Question 33

equality and social justice: what is a good society?

Answer 33

A good society is a meritocracy, organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work

William Gladstone the British liberal Prime Minister introduced competitive examinations for entry to the civil service in the 1870s, thus bringing an end to the practice of hiring people due to their aristocratic connections

Question 34

equality and social justice: formal equality

voting rights, Mary Wollstonecraft, Barack Obama

Answer 34

Formal equality — Until the 20th century liberals did not extend the same rights to women as to men, it was not until 1928 when women achieved the same voting rights as men

Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women were no less rational than men so should be entitled to the same rights including the right to pursue a career and to own property, therefore she exemplified the liberal belief in formal equality

Modern liberals support full civil rights for women minority groups and ethnic minorities e.g. US President Barack Obama supported the right for transgender pupils to use bathrooms of their choice at school

Question 35

equality and social justice: what are the differing views within liberalism over equality?

Answer 35

differing views on equality

Modern liberals tend to favour some form of state intervention to achieve equality of opportunity and to generally narrow social inequalities, they believe that true equality is not possible without social justice

John Rawls was known for trying to reconcile liberal individualism with the prevention of excessive inequality

Classical liberals have a much more negative view on the state so tend to oppose state intervention being used to achieve equality of opportunity

Question 36

liberal democracy: what is liberal democracy?

Answer 36

Since the 19th century most liberals have supported the concept of liberal democracy

Liberal democracy involves; free elections to allow the people to express their views, limitations on the power of the state (although liberals disagree on how limited the state should be), the state acts as a neutral arbiter between different interests in society rather than wielding excessive power over its citizens, respect for civil liberties, toleration of different viewpoints

Question 37

liberal democracy: what should government be based on?

Answer 37

in democracy, government should be based on the consent of the people — This is also central to liberalism

Liberals believe that without the consent of the people, government lacks legitimacy

Question 38

liberal democracy: Thomas Hobbes

Answer 38

Thomas Hobbs in leviathan (1651) argued that the people should come together and allow a great power over them in order to guarantee peace and security

Question 39

liberal democracy: John Locke

Answer 39

John Locke explained the idea of a social contract existing between the people and their rulers in his book Two Treatises of Government (1690)

A social contract is an unofficial agreement shared by everyone in a society in which they give up some freedom in return for security provided by the state

He argued that people must freely give and renew their consent to be governed (Links to the idea of having free and fair elections) and the people have a right to rebel if the government breaks the contract

Question 40

liberal democracy: why do liberals support democracy?

Answer 40

liberals support democracy because it enables individuals to hold the government to account

It also extends popular participation in society and has an educational function as it raises awareness of political events and promotes the personal development of individuals

Democracy gives a political voice to different groups and interests, giving everyone a say and therefore promoting consensus and social cohesion, in turn underpinning political stability by balancing the political system

Question 41

liberal democracy: why do liberals fear excessive democracy?

Answer 41

On the other hand liberals fear excessive democracy as it may lead to tyranny of the majority

Democracy favours the will of the people, following what the majority says and taking this to represent society’s views as a whole

But in doing so it may be suppressing the views of the minority, infringing on minority rights and individual freedom and creating a culture of dull conformism

Question 42

liberal democracy: John Stuart Mill and plural voting

Answer 42

John Stuart Mill proposed plural voting, suggesting that more votes should be allocated to the educated elite in order to curb the influences of the uneducated masses and prevent tyranny of the majority

E.g. Brexit and Trump — Many liberals believe these results were due to the uneducated masses

Modern liberals do not support this view on plural voting as it would give undue weight to the views of the elite, possibly creating tyranny of the minority

Question 43

liberal democracy: under what conditions will liberals support democracy?

Answer 43

Liberals tend to support democracy as long as it is limited by a constitutional framework and individual rights are protected

The electoral college system used in the USA was devised partly as a prevention against the manipulation of the masses by an immoral campaigner/presidential candidate — The people do not directly choose the president, this is done by electors corresponding to the number of representatives that each state has in Congress