key theories & principles

Question 1

COGNITIVE REVOLUTION

Answer 1

(~ Mid 1900s) Behaviourism waning, new perspective burst onto the scene Cognitive Psychology

Mental processing….. But, studied scientifically
Brain-Computer analogy - information processing models of learning
Focus on processing mistakes
Need to understanding individual perspectives of the world

Question 2

STAGES - THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Answer 2

Stage 1
SENSORIMOTOR
0-18m
Learn by doing
Sensory - look, touch, mouth 
Self separate to other objects
Basic cause/effect
Object permanence (~9m)

Stage 2
PREOPERATIONAL
18m-7y
Ego-centric
Simple object classification
Better at imagining/pretend
Thinking tied to doing
Intuition not logic
Language

Stage 3
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
7-11/12y
Logic
Better understand causality 
Connect & manipulate ideas mentally with concrete examples
More complex object classification & organisation
Conservation

Stage 4
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
12+y
Abstract thought, reasoning, logic
Hypothetical & future scenarios
Deductive & moral reasoning
Create and test hypotheses
Sophisticated comparison and classification

Question 3

pros & cons of STAGE THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Answer 3

STRENGTHS
Cognitive development 
Active role of individual
Shared characteristics
Replicable observations (e.g., errors)
Inspired ongoing research

LIMITATIONS
Stage structure not supported
Limited methods
Underestimates innate skills and social environment (‘lone scientist’)
Overlooks strengths/weaknesses
Limited explanation of differences 
Emphasis on inability

Question 4

sociocultural theory:

Answer 4

Vygotsky
Child active in social and cultural environment
Development happens between people, then within them (Keenan, 2002) – ‘internalisation’

Basic ‘elementary mental functions’ develop into ‘higher mental functions’ through interaction
Development reliant on psychological ‘tools’

Question 5

sociocultural theory pros & cons

Answer 5

STRENGTHS
Recognised social environment (‘little apprentice’)
Potential, not just current ability
Bidirectional interaction with environment
Cultural impact on cognitive processing - explains some learning differences

LIMITATIONS
Unfinished/incomplete theory
Piaget & Vygotsky stressed relevance of theories to education - neither studied or applied them in these settings (Smith, Dockrell & Tomlinson, 1997)
Can only assess ZPD via achievements

Question 6

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Answer 6

Children observed interacting with same toys

Children imitated specific behaviours; some disinhibition of other aggression

Question 7

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY pros & cons

Answer 7

STRENGTHS
Reinforced learning principles
Highly testable
Can explain rapid learning of new behaviours
Considers person, behaviour, and environment
Social/societal implications

ISSUES
Must differentiate learning from performance
More focus needed on cognitive and contextual influences
Lacking evidence from natural settings

Question 8

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

5 environment systems around the individual:

Answer 8

Microsystem - Direct environment
Mesosystem - Links between microsystems
Exosystem - Links between direct & indirect environments
Macrosystem – Population/societal level
Chronosystem - Change over time

Question 9

lifespan development stages

Answer 9

Prenatal  (conception to birth)
Infancy/toddler (birth to 3 years)
Early childhood (3 - 6 years)
Middle childhood (6 - 11 years)
Adolescence (11 - 20 years)
Young adulthood (20 - 40 years)
Middle adulthood (40 - 65 years) 
Late adulthood (65+)

Question 10

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Answer 10

Bodily systems & functions
Growth
Motor development
Organs and sensory changes
Brain growth, new connections

Question 11

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Answer 11

Self-concept & identity
Interactions with others
Skills required for interactions

Question 12

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Answer 12

Abilities related to mental processing

Question 13

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Answer 13

Personality/character
Temperament
Self-concept & identity
Emotional reactions and regulation

Question 14

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Answer 14

FIRST (Freud ~1900) focused on mind & self

First to consider multiple ‘selves’; unconscious mental processes shape emotions, thoughts, actions; could bring unconscious into consciousness

Theory of human functioning
Focus on early development
Personality formed in early years
Included stage theory from birth to adulthood
Considerable focus on sexuality
Needs/desires central to behaviour

Question 15

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY pros & cons

Answer 15

STRENGTHS
Recognised unconscious
Processing
motivations
Defence mechanisms
Origin of talking therapies
Importance of early experiences

LIMITATIONS
Little logic/rationale for many specific ideas
Studied mainly adults
Scientifically un-testable
Circular rather than scientific approach to ‘evidence’
Humans passively controlled by unconscious motivations
Rigid biologically driven stage theory

Question 16

BEHAVIOURISM theorists?

Answer 16

Pavlov inspired by work with dogs
Dogs salivated at sight of food AND the feeder
Tested theory of stimulus-response [S-R]
Foundation of classical conditioning

Watson applied principles to humans (e.g., Little Albert)
All human behaviour understood in context of external stimuli

Skinner 
Recognised learners as active
Studied reinforcement…in animals
Outlined operant conditioning
Recognised use in education

Question 17

BEHAVIOURISM pros & cons

Answer 17

STRENGTHS
Recognised environment
Principles evidenced scientifically
Testable
Behaviour control/adaptation for positive change
Learning principles relatively universal

LIMITATIONS
Reductionist
Passive (initially)
Some development poorly explained (e.g., language, disability, creativity)
Over-emphasises environment
ignored heritability
Rejects innate abilities
Ignores ‘mind’ & cognition